| Menelik I | legendary son of Solomon & the Queen of Sheba |
| Ezanas I | c.250 AD |
| Endybis | c.270 AD |
| Aphilas | |
| Uzana/Ousanas | |
| Wazeba | |
| Ella Amida (I,II,III?) | end of 3rd century AD |
| Ezanas II | c.303-c.356 |
|
Frumentius first Coptic Bishop of Ethiopia, c.305; stela erected at juncture of Nile & Atbara, 350; Kush overthrown? 355 | |
|---|---|
| Shizana | c.328-c.370 |
| Ella Abreha | c.356 |
| Ella Asfeha | |
| Ella Shahel | |
| unknown number of Kings | |
| Agabe | 474-475 |
| Levi | 474-475 |
| Ella Amida (IV?) | 475-486 |
| Jacob I | 486-489 |
| David | 486-489 |
| Armah I | 489-504 |
| Zitana | 504-505 |
| Jacob II | 505-514 |
| Caleb, Ella Asbeha | 514-542, or c.500-534 |
| At Roman urging, Ethiopians install a Christian king in Yemen, 523-525 | |
| Beta Israel | 542-c.550 |
| Gabra Masqal | c.550-564 |
| Anaeb | |
| Alamiris | |
| Joel | |
| Israel | |
| Gersem I | |
| Ella Gabaz | |
| Ella Saham | |
| Armah II | c.625 |
| traditional King who welcomed Muslim refugees from Mecca | |
| Iathlia | |
| Hataz I | |
| Wazena | |
| Za Ya'abiyo | |
| Armah III | |
| [unknown] | |
| Hataz II | |
| Gersem II | |
| Hataz III | |
| Zagwe Dynasty | |
| Mara Tekle Haimanot | 916-919 |
| Tatadim | 919-959 |
| Jan Seiyoum | 959-999 |
| Germa Seiyoum | 999-1039 |
| St. Yemrehana Christos | 1039–1079 |
| St. Harbe | 1079-1119 |
| St. Lalibela | 1119-1159 |
| St. Na'akuto Le'Ab | 1159-1207 |
| Yetbarek | 1207-1247 |
| Mairari | 1247-1262 |
| Harbe II | 1262-1270 |
| alternative list | |
| Marari | 1117-1133 |
| Yemrehana Krestos | 1133-1172 |
| Gebra Maskal Lalibela | 1172-1212, or c.1185-1225 |
| Na'akeuto La'ab | 1212-1260 |
| Yitbarek (Yetbarak) | 1260-1268 |
| Solomonic Dynasty | |
| Yekuno Amlak, Tasfa Iyasus, or St. Tekle Haimanot | 1270-1285 |
| Solomon I | 1285-1294 |
| Bahr Asgad | 1294-1297 |
| Senfa Asgad | 1294-1297 |
| Qedma Asgad | 1297-1299 |
| Jin Asgad | 1297-1299 |
| Saba Asgad | 1297-1299 |
| Wedem Arad | 1299-1314 |
| Amda Siyon (Seyoi) I | 1314-1344 |
| Newaya Krestos | 1344-1372 |
| Newaya Maryam | 1372-1382 |
| Dawit (David) I | 1382-1411 |
| Tewodros (Theodore) I | 1411-1414 |
| Isaac | 1414-1429 |
| Andrew | 1429-1430 |
| Takla Maryam | 1430-1433 |
| Sarwe Iyasus | 1433 |
| Amda Iyasus | 1433-1434 |
| Zara Yakob (Constantine I) | 1434-1468 |
| Baeda Mariam I | 1468-1478 |
| Constantine II | 1478-1484 |
| Amda Seyon II | 1494 |
| Na'od | 1494-1508 |
| Lebna Dengel (David II) | 1508-1540 |
| Galawedos (Claudius) | 1540-1559 |
| Moslems allied to Turkey defeated, with Portuguese help, Battle of Lake Tana, 1543 | |
| Menas | 1560-1564 |
| Sarsa Dengel | 1564-1597 |
| Jacob | 1597-1603, 1604-1607 |
| Za Dengel | 1603-1604 |
| Susneyos (Sissinios) | 1607-1632 |
| Fasilidas (Basilides) | 1632-1667 |
| Yohannes (John) I | 1667-1682 |
| Iyasu (Jesus) I the Great | 1682-1706 |
| Tekle Haimanot I | 1706-1708 |
| Tewoflos (Theophilus) | 1708-1711 |
| Yostos (Justus) | 1711-1716 |
| Dawit (David) III | 1716-1721 |
| Bekaffa | 1721-1730 |
| Iyasu II | 1730-1755 |
| Iyoas (Joas) I | 1755-1769 |
| Yohannes II | 1769 |
| Tekle Haimanot II | 1769-1777 |
| Salomon (Solomon) II | 1777-1779 |
| Tekle Giorgis (George) I | 1779-1784, 1788-1789, 1794-1795, 1795-1796, 1797-1799, 1800 |
| Jesus III | 1784-1788 |
| Ba'eda Maryam I | 1788 |
| Hezekiah | 1789-1794 |
| Ba'eda Maryam II | 1795 |
| Solomon III | 1796-1797, 1799 |
| Demetrius | 1799-1800, 1800-1801 |
| Egwala Seyon | 1801-1818 |
| Joas II | 1818-1821 |
| Gigar | 1821-1826, 1826-1830 |
| Ba'eda Maryam III | 1826 |
| Jesus IV | 1830-1832 |
| Gabra Krestos | 1832 |
| Sahla Dengel | 1832-1840, 1841-1855 |
| Yohannes III | 1840-1841 |
| Tewodros (Theodore) II | 1855-1868 |
| takes diplomats hostage; British Expedition, defeat & suicide of Tewodros, 1868 | |
| Tekle Giorgis II | 1868-1872 |
| Yohannes IV | 1872-1889 |
| Egyptians defeated, driven out of Eritrea, Battle of Gundet, 1875, Battle of Gura, 1876 | |
| Menilek (Menelik) II | 1889-1913 |
| Italians defeated, Battle of Adwa, 1896 | |
| Lij Iyasu (Joshua) | regent 1909-1913, 1913-1916 (d. 1935) |
| Empress Zawditu | 1916-1930 |
| Haile Sellassie (Selassie) (Ras Tafari Makonnen) | regent 1916-1930,
Emperor, 1930-1936 |
| Italian Occupation | |
| Victor Emmanuel (III, of Italy) styled "Emperor of Ethiopia" | 1936-1941 |
| Haile Sellassie (restored) | 1941-1974, d. 1975 |
| Asfa Wossen | 1974-1975, d. 1997 |
| Aman Mikael Andom | Head of State, 1974 |
| Tafari Benti | 1974-1977 |
| Mengistu Haile Mariam | 1977-1987 President, 1987-1991 |
| Meles Zenawi | 1991-1995 |
| Negasso Gidada | 1995-present |
A significant traditional empire that fits only imperfectly into the system of Empires discussed in the Index to Lists of Rulers is Ethiopia, which had few pretentions to universality, but was in the Middle Eastern tradition of universalist titles, 
since the Ethiopian emperor was styled the Negus Negast, the "King of Kings," as were the Kings of Assyria (Shar Sharim) and the Shâhs of Persia and Iran (Xshayathiya Xshayathiyanam, Shâhanshâh).
Ethiopia was its own kind of cultural island universe for centuries, a beleaguered bastion of Christianity in an isolating sea of Islâm, a successor, not just to the Middle Eastern traditions through Yemen, but to the original Ethiopia of the Greeks, the sub-Egyptian kingdom of Kush, which began with the Egyptian 25th Dynasty (751-656 BC), from Piankhy to Tanuatamun, and which, although driven out of Egypt by the Assyrians, flourished at Napata (where pyramids were actually built) and Meroë for many centuries. Indeed, the highland Ethiopia, or Abyssinia, itself may have brought the kingdom of Meroë to an end, around 355 AD.
The Abyssinian kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) had already existed for some time. It 
left enduring monuments in the obelisk-like stone stelae, with Stela 3 (at left, and in background photograph) still standing at 67 feet tall, which reproduce the "skyscraper" architecture of ancient Yemen. A few kings of Aksum are barely known from their coins. As Kush came to an end, Abyssinia had recently converted to Christianity, in communion with the Coptic Egyptian Church. It is not hard to see the reign of the Emperor Ezanas, under whom this all happened, as the real beginning of classic Ethiopian civilization. The torch of Meroë had been passed, but since the Meroë writing has not been deciphered, Ethiopia becomes the first sub-Saharan African civilization fully open to the light of history. Indeed, the ancient language of Axum, Ethiopic or Ge'ez, is still actively used in the Ethiopian Church.
This list is largely based on Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies. Some alternative dates and Ethiopian readings of names are gleaned from A History of Ethiopia, by Harold G. Marcus [University of California Press, 1994], from Ancient Ethiopia, by David W. Phillipson [British Museum Press, 1998], and from a History of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church website. The photographs of Aksum Stela 3 are from Phillipson. With so many uncertainties in the chronology, very different lists of Emperors, with different dates, may be seen. Lists exist that trace the genealogy of the Emperors all the way back to Adam and Eve, with a span of 6500 years. Many people take these lists seriously, and one correspondent has objected to the characterization of Menelik I as "legendary." However, Adam and Eve are not historical persons and much of Ethiopian history even since Ezanas II is not well attested or dated. Ethiopia is certainly interesting and important enough without giving credence to pious or nationalistic exaggerations.
One tradtional duty of the Coptic Patriarchs of Alexandria was appointing the Archbishop and Primate of Ethiopia, the Abune or Abuna (Arabic for "Our Father"). The first such appointee was Frumentius (Abune Selama I Kesatay Birhan), a Syrian who had been living at the Ethiopian court for some time and journeyed to Alexandria in order to ask for a Bishop to be appointed. Traditionally, it is supposed to have been St. Athanasius himself who then appointed Frumentius to the post. However, the known dates of Athanasius are a bit late for the likely date of Frumentius's trip. After the advent of Islâm, communication between the Patriarch and Ethiopia was interrupted; but in the 12th century, appointments were resumed. It was always an Egyptian Coptic monk who was appointed; and by the 20th century, Ethiopians were beginning to think that maybe it was time for an Ethiopian to be Primate of Ethiopia. Negotiations over this in 1929 still resulted in an Egyptian monk as Archbishop and Primate, the Abuna Kerlos (Kyrllos), but with four Ethiopians concecrated as Bishops.
| Recent Primates and Patriarchs of Ethiopia | |
|---|---|
| Marqos X | 1694-1716 |
| Vacant, 1716-c.1718 | |
| Krestodolo III | c.1718-1745 |
| Vacant, 1745-c.1747 | |
| Yohannese XIV | c.1747-1770 |
| Yosab III | 1770-1803 |
| Vacant, 1803-c.1808 | |
| Makarios | c.1808 |
| Vacant, c.1808-1816 | |
| Kyrillos III | 1816-1829 |
| Vacant, 1829-1841 | |
| Selama III | 1841-1866 |
| Vacant, 1866-1868 | |
| Atanasios | 1868-1876 |
| Petros VII | 1876-1889, d.1918 |
| Mattheos X | 1889-1926 |
| Abuna Kerlos, Kyrllos IV | 1926-1936, 1945 |
| Italian Occupation, 1936-1941 | |
| Abuna Abraham | 1936-1939 |
| Abuna Yohannis | 1939-1945 |
| Abuna Basilos, Basil | 1945-1950 |
| Primate, 1950-1959 | |
| Patriarch, 1959-1971 | |
| Abuna Tewophilos | 1971-1977, executed |
| Abuna Tekle Haimanot | 1977-1988 |
| Abuna Merkorios | 1988-1991, deposed |
| Abuna Poulos, Paul | 1991-present |
In the table, Primates appointed under the authority of the Coptic Patriarch are in green. The Abuna Kerlos was deposed by the Italians after he fled to Egypt and denounced the Italian occupation. However, previous to that he had negotiated with the Italians, even in Rome, and many people thought of him as compromised and a collaborator because of this. His successor, appointed by the Italians, Abuna Abraham, was excommunicated by the Coptic Patriarch. When Kerlos returned to Ethiopia in 1945, he awkwardly shared the scene with the Abuna Yohannis, also appointed by the Italians; but conveniently they both died natural deaths within the year. An Ethiopian, Abuna Basilos, was then appointed. This was, however, now independent of the authority of the Coptic Patriarch (and so still shown in orange, even though the Italians were long gone). In 1950, that got straightened out, and Basilos was recognized as legitimate by Alexandria. Later in his reign (1959), the Ethiopian Church was reestablished as an autocephalous Patriarchate, although still in communion, of course, with Alexandria.
The next problem for the Church was the dictatorship of Mengistu Haile Mariam. In 1977 the Patriarch was arrested and then executed. The Church was disestablished as the State Religion and, like in the Soviet Union, the government began its propaganda campaign against all religion. A quiet monk, Abba Melaku, was made the new Patriarch, as Abuna Tekle Haimanot, and he ended up resisting the regime as much as he could, with the result that he was well thought of despite his official position. His successor, however, Abuna Merkorios, was deposed once the dictatorship ended in 1991. 
Unfortunately, this resulted in a schism, with Merkorios founding his own Church in exile, while the new Abuna Poulos (at left) reigned in Ethiopia. With all the political upheaval in the recent history of Ethiopia, it is perhaps surprising that something like this hadn't happened already.
After centuries of isolation by Islâm, an important chapter in the history of Ethiopia came when the Portuguese appeared in the Indian Ocean. They had heard rumors of a mythical Christian kingdom, in Asia or Africa, ruled by the saintly "Prester John," surrounded and isolated by enemies of Christianity, and soon found the place that seemed to fit the description: Ethiopia. Portuguese influence stimulated and aided Ethiopia at a critical time when it was under serious threat from the triumphant Ottoman Empire. Portuguese firearms, delivered after an appeal for help by the Emperor Lebna Dengel in 1535, enabled the Emperor Galawedos to defeat the Imam of Harer, leader of Moslem forces, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim, who was killed in a great battle in 1543. Portuguese influence, however, was ultimately rejected, since Ethiopia was religiously Coptic and Monophysite, not Roman Catholic.
Ethiopia was finally only conquered, briefly, between 1936 and 1941, by Italy, not, significantly, in the 19th century "scramble for Africa," but in the age of totalitarian conquest in the 1930's. This was Mussolini's revenge for what had happened in the 19th century: That was the Emperor Menelik II's extraordinary defeat of an Italian army in 1896. Ranking with the later defeat of Russia by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War as one of the great setbacks of European imperialism, the Battle of Adwa is often misrepresented as an army of Africans with spears somehow beating the Italians. This overlooks a number of facts:
In the face of Italian aggression, France abandoned its diplomatic and material support of Ethiopia. France and Britain decided that an arms embargo on "all belligerents" was the moral response to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia; and the Italians, who of course made their own arms, actually used poison gas against Ethiopian forces. Thus, Ethiopia fell to Mussolini, not because it was backward, like the Congo, but because it was abandoned, like Czechoslovakia. After Italy entered World War II, however, the liberation of Ethiopia was set in motion, and the Italians, who had committed many atrocities against the constant resistance of the Ethiopian people during the occupation, were easily defeated.
In its long isolation, Ethiopia produced from the old South Arabian alphabet a unique and beautiful syllabary, which is still used to write modern languages like Amharic. This contributed one rich aspect to the island universe of Ethiopian civilization.
Since there are now "afrocentrist" claims current that the Ethiopic alphabet was not based on the old South Arabian alphabet, it is worth comparing the two in the table at right. Not only are many of the letters obviously identical, but Ethiopic even preserves most of the South Arabian alphabetical order, which is distinct from the one that we find in Hebrew, Greek, or Arabic. Ethiopic also made some of the same slight alterations in the ancient letters as Greek, producing recognizable counterparts to lambda, omicron, and theta.
Why it is thought necessary to take something already splendid and extraordinary and trivialize it with exaggerated claims is sad but not surprising, since it is of a piece with many examples of inflated ethnic (in this case racial) self-importance, as I have noted elsewhere in regard to the the Greeks and India.
One curious feature about Ethiopia in the 20th Century is that, although its national religion remained confined to the homeland and expatriot communities, the existence of the Empire, at a time when only one other black state in Africa was independent, inspired relgious developments elsewhere. In distant Jamaica a movement began that exalted Ethiopia to heavenly and the Emperor of the time, Haile Sellassie, to divine status. This movement came to be known as Ras Tafarianism, after Haile Sellassie's pre-Imperial name and title (Ras). A long, ropy hairdo, "dreadlocks," and marijuana (ganja) smoking became associated with the movement, which seemed threatening to many, with little back-to-Africa or self-improvement overtones, but a great deal of what seemed at the time threatening behavior and rhetoric. Late in his life, Haile Sellassie actually visited Jamaica. He had previously not heard of this movement and was exceedingly puzzled, if not unsettled, by it, as a man might be whose name means "Faith in the Trinity" -- though a correspondent has disputed this, saying that the Emperor was actually invited to Jamaica by visiting Rastafarians and knew about them. The movement came to international attention mainly through the success of the splendid Reggae music in the 1970's, when musicians like the late Bob Marley (sporting dreadlocks) and Jimmy Cliff found success and celebrity all over the world. As result of Haile Sellassie's visit and local contact with Ethiopia, Ethiopian Coptic churches did open in Jamaica and the West Indies, attracting converts and Rastafarians who either understood that Haile Sellassie was not God in Ethiopian Christianity, were disillusioned, or who determined to join the Church whatever its teaching.
If Ras Tafarianism might have seemed confused to Ethiopians, the popularity of Islâm among black nationalists in the United States and elsewhere must be positively galling. While Ethiopia had preserved its independence and Christian religion for centuries against Islâm, constantly enduring the depredations of Arab slavers, many, or most, of whose male victims were castrated, many foreign blacks now blame and reject Christianity for the Atlantic slave trade which took their ancestors to the New World. Bill Clinton's attempt on a trip to Africa to even apologize for the slave trade was actually rebuked by the President of Uganda, who said that the African chiefs who sold their people to the slavers were really the ones at fault (and still at fault, since it turns out that the West African slave trade still exists, at least in children). Indeed, the Atlantic slave trade simply meant that native West African slavers sold their wares south to the coast rather than north to the trans-Saharan trade, which had already been going on for centuries, probably exacting as great a human toll as the Atlantic trade and noticeably leaving few suriviving blacks, of all those imported, in the Middle East. Although himself a political radical of a harsh, Marxist sort, it is noteworthy that Princeton philosophy professor Cornell West (advisor of Democrat Presidential hopeful Bill Bradley in the 2000 campaign) retains his own Christianity, was married to an Ethiopian woman, and avoids the pro-Islâmic idealizations (and anti-Semitism) of many other American black radicals. Ethiopia and her religion thus receive some respect from a source that, in general, one might have expected to be relatively unaware of the country and relatively hostile to the religion.
Kings of Kush (Ethiopia), XXV Dynasty of Egypt
Coptic Patriarchs of Alexandria