All Living Things,
in Seven Kingdoms

Note:

This page contains an image, involving human anatomy, that some may regard as offensive or inappropriate. It is included because it is (1) funny, (2) apt, (3) addresses a feature of the human condition, namely that we belong to the natural system of the animals, and of the mammals in particular, and (4) it is aesthetically appealing. People who find this disturbing or objectionable may wish to read about decadence instead. Otherwise, see the note for Mammalia in the example classification for Homo sapiens below. To view this page without the frame above, click here.

The following list covers, as far as I can determine, every living thing, not always down to much detail, of course. This is an idiosyncratic and likely a dated treatment. Idiosyncratic mainly because of the system of Superkingdoms and Kingdoms, which are novel, as explained. Dated because most of my original sources are getting a little old. I would like to keep up with the research and to update this page in a timely fashion, but I can't make this a full-time job and devote the attention it would require. Parts get updated as particular things come to my attention, sometimes in relation to matters that diverge off into other issues, such as bureaucracy or human sexuality. Since the purpose of the page is to give a general idea and an impression of the diversity of life, this is not harmed by not everything being up to date. As awareness of the variety, age, and history of life is part of the basic motivation and evidence for the theory of Evolution by natural selection, it does not need to be entirely current to annoy the right people. On the other hand, the notion of the superiority of modern life over ancient (both biological and cultural) is bound to annoy other kinds of people, although the full treatment of the matter is to be found elsewhere.

My first exposure to the big picture of life was in The Wellsprings of Life by the late and beloved Isaac Asimov [Signet Science Library, 1960], which I had assigned in a freshman Anthropology class at the University of New Mexico in 1967. Another favorite old book was Evolution of the Vertebrates by Edwin H. Colbert [John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1955, 1969], which I had found while in high school. Both books may be too out of date, especially Colbert -- although my affection for them persists and I still have them at hand. But the source I have initially used the most here is Five Kingdoms, An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth by Lynn Margulis and Karlene V. Schwartz [W.H. Freeman and Company, 1982] -- a book that itself is likely to be rather dated, although not as much so and the issues are current.

The earliest ideas about the ultimate classification of material things may be like what we see at left, a division that we still hear occasionally, between animal, vegetable, and mineral. This won't do as a division of life, of course, since the "mineral" part is inanimate. Reducing this to "animal and vegetable" isn't exactly a revolution in biology, so that the steps are to notice that bacteria are very different from complex plants and animals, while eventually fungi began to look fundamentally different from regular, photosynethic plants. Whether fungi had a common ancestor, perhaps independent of plants, would need to wait for genetic studies.

The five Kingdoms of Margulis and Schwartz are Monera, Protoctista (instead of Protista), Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia, as we see at left where the protozoans have been separated from both animals and bacteria. The source of the "seven Kingdoms" idea on this page was a Scientific American article on the "archaebacteria," anaerobic and other peculiar bacteria that are like those that preexisted the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere [C. R. Woese, "Archaebacteria," Scientific American, June 1981, pp.98-122]. In a genealogy of life, these are importantly different from later bacteria.
Superkingdom Progenotes*.....first cells
Superkingdom Archaebacteriae
   Kingdom Protomonera.......archaic bacteria
Superkingdom Eubacteria
   Kingdom Monera............bacteria
Superkingdom Urkaryotes*
Superkingdom Eukaryotes......cells with nuclei
   Kingdom Protista..........protozoans
   Kingdom Myxomycophyta.....slime molds
   Kingdom Plantae...........plants
   Kingdom Fungi.............fungi
   Kingdom Animalia..........animals
They include the very unique chemosynthesizing bacteria that make an abundance of life possible at volcanic vents, "smokers," on mid-ocean ridges. These sites and their fauna were entirely unknown until the late 1970's and open the prospect that life may have begun in the high temperatures and chemical rich environments of such places. I have just seen mention (late 2002, on one of these science shows on the Discovery Channel or Science Channel) that a fundamental division of life into the archaic bacteria, regular bacteria, and everything else is now widely accepted. All I have done here is introduce the most general divisions as "Superkingdoms," with two extra kingdoms for slime molds (beloved by all) and the archaebacteria. The idea of the extinct Superkingdoms of primaeval cells and early eukatryotes was from specuation about such things in the Scientific American article.

The first book I saw on all this was The Third Domain, the Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology, by Tim Friend [Joseph Henry Press, Washington, 2007]. The chart at left is featured in Friend's book [p.11] with a division based on DNA studies. I have added color to highlight the differences, with the assumption that it is Archaebacteria at the "Origin," since they were necessarily anaerobic in an early atmosphere of little oxygen. [note]

The idea of the three living Superkingdoms that I have used here is intended to represent the new understanding of the three large divisions of life, with two extinct Superkingdoms for transitional forms that now no longer exist. The Superkingdoms are thus based on the stages in the evolution of structure of the cell. Eukaryotic cells not only contain distinct nuclei but have organelles, small bodies like mitochondria and chloroplasts. Since such organelles can contain their own genetic material, they may well have originated as separate organisms that came to live as symbiotes in host cells. Instead of "Superkingdoms," it has already been suggested that the three living highest divisions of life be called "Domains." Since "superkingdom" is not otherwise used, and I have added extinct categories, I would prefer "Superkingdom" over "Domain," but we shall see what catches on or is formally adopted.

It also occurred in the Scientific American article that slime molds were rather different from what might have been associated with them earlier, the fungi or protista -- Margulis and Schwartz note that such separate classification can occur but don't themselves give slime molds a separate Kingdom. With the new genetic studies, as displayed in Friend's book, a number of branches of life appear to be on about equal footing with slime molds, plants, animals, and fungi. This could result in a great multiplication of Kingdoms, with six divisions instead of one for the Protista just within the Eukaryotes. The following diagram from Friend's book [p.63] is more clearly labelled and does not leave unidentified branches as in the first diagram. For the moment, I will resist the tempation to multiply the Kingdoms further -- holding at seven with only two added to Margulis and Schwartz for the Archaebacteria (preferentially "Archaea" in recent usage) and slime molds. If organelles originate as symbiotes within the Eukaryotes, it is always possible that some of them were from the Eubacteria, which complicates a simple branching tree of life. I have not yet attempted to adjust the main table below in light of the new information. It still reflects what I gathered from the earlier sources.

The basic elements of the system of classification are in bold text below:  Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and species. The elaboration of this into so many intermediate categories now has progressed very far. The following table illustrates the levels of classification for human beings (Homo sapiens). I have modified this table in light of a recent article in Science News [March 29, 2003] that there has been a division introduced for the Primates since the work in other sources. Tarsiers have now been removed from the Prosimians and grouped with monkeys and apes. The division between this group (the Haplorhines) and the rest of the Primates (the Strepsirrhines) has even been dated, with DNA techniques, to between 80 and 90 million years ago. This puts the groups in the range of Suborders. So I have introduced them at that level, bumping the previous Suborders and Infraorders down one step. This could be conveniently done, since the Parvorder level not had previously been used. I have also seen in a National Geographic Magazine article on the mammals [April 2003] that recent DNA studies have radically regrouped the divisions of placential mammals [pp.14-15]. We get four broad groups, Afrotheria, Xenarthra, Laurasiatheria, and Euarchontoglires. These groups match up with the way in which the Jurassic supercontinent, Pangaea, broke up (or reconnected, between Eurasia and Africa) over millions of years, with the groups corresponding, respectively, to Africa, South America, Eurasia and North American (i.e. Laurasia), and Eurasia and Africa. As it happens these divisions can easily be incorporated as Superorders. Previously, I had only used one Superorder (Placentalia) under the Infraclass Eutheria, but this was not logically meaningful, since it was coextensive. The Eutheria were already the placentials. Now this gives us more interesting distinctions. I cannot know from the National Geographic information where some Orders, especially extinct ones, would belong, so I have simply left them under Laurasiatheria, which is the largest group.

Perhaps I need not have bothered with Orders, Infraorders, Suborders, etc. The newest hot thing in biology and paleontology seems to be to abandon classification categories like Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, and Family, with all their subdivisions and supergroupings. I've come across this in a recent book, The Tyrannosaur Chronicles, the Biology of the Tyrant Dinosaurs [Bloomsbury Sigma, 2016], by David Hone, who is a paleontologist at the University of London. Hone says,

Few of the old taxonomic ranks of organisms (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species) are used by modern biologists and paleontologists. While terms like 'the dog family' and 'Class Aves' still get bandied about, reserachers are increasingly abandoning them since they don't have clear equivalents between groups. [p.11]

Instead of the traditional ranks, Hone indiscriminately uses "clades" (κλάδοι, singular κλάδος, "branch," particularly a branch broken off) or "groups" for everything beyond Genera and species, although we do find the curious expression "major groups," glossed as "previously called families" [p.39]. A Family hardly seems like a "major group" in terms of the traditional hierarchy. But then Hone uses the term "major groups" to refer to the "albertosaurines" and "tyrannosaurines," which would be subfamilies, not families [p.47]. This shifting and confusion is just what we would expect from Hone's new attitude.

Now, in doing this Hone endorses the new techniques of "cladistic analysis" [p.45], without really explaining very much about them to us. And, of course, it would be nice to see the traditional ranks, originally with no more than subjective motivations, brought up to date with more rigorous definitions, as in percentages of common DNA or in terms of time lapsed since a common ancestor (as in the diagram below). But completely erasing the traditional ranks has a taste both of nihilism and of the kind of arrogance that summarily tossed out Brontosaurus from the taxonomy -- a sin that is all too evident in Hone himself, who refers to "famous names (such as Diplodocus, Stegosaurus, Allosaurus, and Apatosaurus)" [pp.26-27], where, of course, there was nothing "famous" about "Apatosaurus" until Brontosaurus fossils were stolen for it. Late in his book, Hone does work Brontosaurus into a list of Sauropods, without comment, perhaps because he has become aware that the name has returned to the favored graces of paleontology.

If cladistic diagrams can be developed with some rigor, this is an excellent development. Biologists, however, are unlikely to recall that the result, with binary divisions, looks like one of the oldest techniques in logic, the Porphyrian Tree, whose conception really goes back to Plato but is named after the Neoplatonist Porphyry, who described it in his Isagoge, the "Introduction" to Aristotle's Organon of logical works. It is in Porphyry that the nomenclature of "genus and species," which goes back to Aristotle and which Hone admits is still used in biology, is formally established. And for Porphyry, all the levels of generality (generalitas) above species (pl. species) are genera (sing. genus). The first genus, however, is the "promixate" genus, while all the others are "remote" genera [cf. Basic Logic, Raymond J. McCall, Barnes & Noble, 1952, 1967, p.8]. So the cladistic diagrams we see now are simply ranks of remote genera, and the remaining taxonomic rank of "Genus" is the proximate genus.

In these terms, the traditional ranks of "Kingdom," etc., were simply trying to give us some perspective on how general our generalities were. If Hone can refer to the Ornithischian and Saurischian dinosaurs as "clades" rather than "Orders" [p.39], this does leave us with no sense of how many layers of remote genera we have traversed from the species. But he also continues to use the forms of traditional terminology, like "Tryannosauridae," without telling us that the "-idae" suffix, from the Greek patronymic, was always used distinctively for the names of biological Families. Obscuring these principles is not helpful. A name like "Tyrannosauridae" pins the system to a reference point. How many divisions we then need below the Family level depends on the situation. This is where cladistic analysis will help; but with our reference points at Family and Genus, we can fill in as many levels as we need, with reasonable terminology. This sort of thing is evident at several points on this page.

The confusion that can result from Hone's approach is evident in his own list of the Genera and species of the Tyrannosauroidea [p.54], which I have reproduced below with appropriate ranks. All the "clades" are lumped together by Hone in the same column, with the elimination of the Family "Tyrannosauridae" as, evidently, redundant. What this means is that we cannot use Hone's own table to construct the relationships that we see in Hone's own earlier diagram of the Tyrannosauroidea [p.13 -- shown in the paragraph above, with glosses in red, blue, and purple]. This is not helpful, and it demonstrates the usefulness of the traditional ranks. They do provide an orientation, and ideally they enable us go back and forth between a cladistic diagram and the taxonomic names.

Thus, I will continue wtih the traditional ranks, however subjective the assignments must sometimes be. David Hone unintentionally demonstrates the drawbacks of giving them up. However, I now see a use of "clade" that is new and helpful. At Wikipedia there is often inserted a "clade" assignment into traditional classifications to indicate descent were this would otherwise not be shown without a diagram. Thus, Mammals are under the "clade" of Synapsida, mammal-like reptiles, because that looks like the point of derivation for Mammals. Otherwise, it is awkward to indicate this since Mammalia is its own Class, while Synapsida is a Subclass of the Class Reptilia. In these terms, we would want to insert a "clade" for Dinosaurs under Infraclass Archosauria, since that is actually where Dinosaurs used to be and it does indicate the probable point of their descent. This is a very useful and innovative use of the "clade" concept. So lets see what this looks like for human beings. Porphyry would be proud:

Superkingdom Eukaryotes
   Kingdom Animalia
      Subkingdom Metazoa
         Infrakingdom Coelomata
            Superphylum Deuterostomia, 750-1250 My
               Phylum Chordata
                  Subphylum Vertebrata
                     Superclass Tetrapoda
                        Clade Synapsida
                           Class Mammalia [note]
                              Subclass Theria
                                 Infraclass Eutheria
                                    Superorder Euarchontoglires
                                       Order Primates, 90-100 My
                                          Suborder Haplorhines, 80-90 My
                                             Infraorder Anthropoidea, 70-80 My
                                                Parvorder Catarrhini, 60-70 My
                                                   Superfamily Hominoidea, 50-60 My
                                                      Family Hominidae, 40-50 My
                                                         Subfamily Anthropinae, 30-40 My
                                                            Tribe Hominini, 20-30 My
                                                               Genus Homo
                                                                  species sapiens
                                                                     variety sapiens

The levels of "parvorder" and "tribe" originally only occurred in one place in the following table, under the Order Passeriformes, perching birds -- though the parvorder is now also used here, as just explained, for the Primates. The classification for these birds is based on another article in Scientific American, which distinguished between the Corvida and the Passerida. The most interesting feature was that the Corvida, ultimately including crows (Genus Corvus), evolved in Australia and, unlike other native Australian life forms, was able to then spread around the world. The use of the "parvorder" and "tribe" levels also went along with an estimation, which is given in the table above, of the time elapsed since separation of the genealogy at that level. With genetic analysis of DNA, this is now a promising means of determining relationships between all life forms and the age of various divisions. If the purpose of the introduction of parvorder and tribe was to allow a steady gradient in time among the level of classification, then perhaps living genera separate at 10-20 million years ago, and species at up to 10 million years ago. It is independently estimated that a species lasts about 5 million years, so that is in the right order of magnitude.

Speaking of the birds, Aves is given here as a Subclass rather than a Class as traditional, based on the idea that birds are dinosaurs, and that dinosaurs should no longer be classified as reptiles. The traditional view of the classification is shown at left, where Dinosauria would be no more than a Superorder, over the two (or three) Orders of dinosaurs, with the derivation of birds subject to agnosticism but generally thought not to be from the dinosaurs. The classification here thus uses Class Endosauropsida for both dinosaurs and birds, borrowing the term from The Hot-Blooded Dinosaurs, by Adrian J. Desmond [Warner Books, 1975, 1977], one of the first books I saw with extensive discussion and argument for the warm blooded nature of dinosaurs (and Thecondonts, which here are still left with the reptiles). This idea for the reclassification is shown at right. Later, I would say that the best book that turned up was The Dinosaur Heresies by practicing paleontologist Robert T. Bakker [William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986] -- a bit of a Wild Child in paleontology, always sporting a bushy beard and battered cowboy hat.

It now seems to be generally accepted that birds are derived from dinosaurs. This motivates putting dinosaurs and birds in the same class. However, the dinosaurs have been gone for 65 million years, birds do seem to have a common ancestor, and I therefore tend to think that there is as much justification to separate birds from dinosaurs as mammals from reptiles. So, although I have left Class Endosauropsida in the table below, I am beginning to prefer the grouping shown at left, with three whole classes derived from Reptilia.

In a recent book, My Beloved Brontosaurus, On the Road with Old Bones, New Science, and Our Favorite Dinosaurs [Scientific American/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013], the author, Brian Switek, simply classifies birds with dinosaurs under the common Class of Dinosauria. Because of this, he must always refer to dinosaurs proper in the book as "non-avian dinosaurs." The constant repetition of this becomes tedious and is clumsy, unnecessary, and annoying. David Hone, even without the traditional ranks, faces the same problem but avoids quite as much repetition. But Reptiles are not "non-mammalian reptiles" just because mammals are derived from them. By the same token, we could easily preserve Aves as a separate Class because of a unique characteristic, flight, that separates it from the dinosaurs (even modern flightless birds, with vestigial wings, derive from flying birds). Thus, Adrian Desmond's Endosauropsida seems preferable, with Subclasses of Dinosauria and Aves. Or just make them both Classes, as I have just suggested. Birds are birds and dinosaurs are dinosaurs. Birds have pulled dinosaurs out of the Subclass Diapsida into their own Sublass or Class.

Taking part of David Hone's diagram from page 66, we can consider some of the difficulties involved. The only actual change I have made here is to place the node of "dinosaurs" above the branch for Pterosaurs, as well as where Hone has it, below. In the main list, I do have the Pterosaurs as an Order of dinosaurs. Hone's own diagram makes it look like this is essentially an arbitrary decision, since he does have Pterosaurs as at least the most closely related Archosaurs to the dinosaurs. The bigger difference, of course, is that I have considered how to assign the traditions taxonomic ranks to the diagram, while Hone does not need to. We can elevate the Dinosauria from what would have been a traditional Superorder to a Subclass or even a Class in its own right. This may look odd, having a Class as essentially a subdivision of the Infraclass Archosauria, but then Aves was itself always considered a Class, and now there is little doubt that it derives from the Theropods (as shown). The previous uncertainty about its derivation helped it status as a Class, but then mammals were a Class also, and there was much less doubt about their derivation from the mammal-like reptiles. We must certainly think that Class status goes with radical modifications in morphology and physiology. How this is to be quantified is a good question. Even DNA analysis may not show much in the way of large differences. Or it may. In any case, what we subjectively perceive as "radical modifications" is likely to be something that can be given a mathematical expression in time, removing the subjective element.

Brian Switek's book stands as a loving farewell to the Brontosaurus that he knew in childhood. The name had been abolished in an obscurantist rage to replace it with Apatosaurus, and Switek consistently only refers to "Brontosaurus" with scare quotes. However, Switek's treatment is compromised by two things. One is that a number of paleontologists, like Robert Bakker and Stephen J. Gould, continued to use the name Brontosaurus, on the principle that usage can overrule temporal priority. Switek doesn't even discuss this dissent, despite his purported love for Brontosaurus. What now also compromises Switek is that the rejection of Brontosaurus has been reversed, allowing that Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus are different genera. See further discussion below and the list of genera.

One of the great features of Bakker's book is his explanation of the evidence for the large sauropod dinosaurs being able to raise up on their hind legs. As with Brontosaurus at right, it is easy to see the long processes out of the top of the vertebrae [pp.191-192]. The only purpose for such things is muscle attachments. Their length indicates the leverage that the muscles need to function, and the only reasonable function is to raise up the body.

While the idea of these dinosaurs rearing up has become general knowledge, the evidence for it has not. This is clear in the movie Jurassic Park, where a Brachiosaurus is shown rearing up. However, Bakker shows the skeleton of Brachiosaurus also (below), and its vertebrae do not have the same long processes as Brontosaurus. Brachiosaurus has longer front legs and a relatively longer neck. It is thus adapted to high feeding without rearing up. The makers of Jurassic Park missed this, or ignored it. In the entrance hall of the American Museum of Natural History, in New York City, a Barosaurus is displayed rearing up -- with its conspicuous processes.

Meanwhile, other paleontologists simply don't believe that sauropods like this could even raise their heads, much less raise their whole bodies. One argument seems to be simple disbelief that the circulatory system could handle the low blood pressure that would result from the raised head. That there isn't a shred of evidence about what such circulatory systems were, and that giraffes have no trouble raising their heads for what are probably similar purposes of feeding (with physiological adaptations for the changes in blood pressure as the head is raised and lowered), doesn't seem to matter. I have not noticed any suggestions about what the long sauropod neck would have been for, if it was not for high level feeding. Perhaps sauropods needed to stick their heads in through windows. Bakker links the predominance of sauropods in the Jurassic with the absence of low level vegetation, while in the Cretaceous, the rise of flowering plants, with their low level leaves, resulted in the decline of sauropods and the predominance of other herbivores who were adapted for low level feeding.

The idea that evolution represents progress is criticized by some scientists, like Stephen J. Gould himself. Gould thinks that "natural selection" contains so many accidental features that we can rarely say that its products are "better" than they might have been with some different outcome. There is no telling what kind of intelligent dinosaurs we might have now if they had not been knocked out by an asteroid 65 million years ago. Who are we to think that we are "better" than they might have been? Or, who are we to think that we are better than squids, trilobites, or horseshoe crabs?

The problem with Gould's point of view is that it rejects any possibility that some things are more organized than others. Yet life itself is more organized than inorganic nature. Life can occur because the situation of the Earth allows entropy to decrease rather than increase, increasing order rather than disorder, an unusual situation in the universe (and used by Creationists to deny that evolution is possible). But if the Earth allows order to increase over time, then it is reasonable to say that, barring accidents like the asteroid impacts, life will get more and more organized over time. If dinosaurs had lived, maybe there would be intelligent dinosaurs by now. But squids and horseshoe crabs have lived, quite content and unchanged in their own ancient ecological niches. Other forms of life, however, caught by ecological changes or radiating into new niches, have changed dramatically. With humans, lower entropy not only has occurred with human evolution, but humans now extensively organize Nature around them. We intentionally lower entropy through vast artificial constructions, in comparison to which the earlier artifacts of living things, like beaver dams, look like, well, mole hills. The system of life thus does represent, perhaps to the horror of someone like Stephen J. Gould, a hierarchy. Human beings indeed look like, as Pericles said, the "paragon of animals."

On the other hand, Gould sometimes displays towering good sense. His essay, "Bully for Brontosaurus" [Bully for Brontosaurus, Reflections in Natural History, 1991, W. W. Norton & Company, 1992], addresses the question of whether the genus Brontosaurus should be, or should have been, identified with and renamed Apatosaurus. Both genera had been named by O. C. Marsh, so there was no question of shifting credit for the discoveries. As early as 1903, Elmer Riggs, at the Field Museum of Natural History, argued that the identified Apatosaurus was simply a juvenile Brontosaurus. The American Museum of Natural History, which exhibits a fine Brontosaurus specimen, asserts that the name was "officially changed" because of Riggs' argument, since the naming of Apatosaurus had priority by a couple of years, although certain "writers" continue to use Brontosaurus.

Since I never heard of Apatosaurus until the 1990's, when suddenly authorities were saying that the name that had been used for decades, Brontosaurus, was wrong, this was more than a little perplexing. And since one of the "writers" who continued to argue for Brontosaurus was no less than Stephen Jay Gould, who not only was professionally associated with the American Museum but, after Margaret Meade, was probably the most famous person to be so associated, one would think that the more common name should be given a bit more respect. Indeed, Gould's own argument is that one of the criteria for scientific naming is usage. Since Brontosaurus was the name in common usage of decades, and most people have never heard of Apatosaurus, that should have settled the matter. That it didn't raises the question why the "authorities" should suddenly have decided to switch things around on everyone. My suspicion that it is an example of one of the practical rules of bureaucracy, which is "jerk people around." As noted above, since it now (2015) seems to be the case that Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus actually are different genera, this particular debate seems moot.

Nevertheless, we do see real progress in Paleontology. Gould himself relates his awe and fear in seeing the Tyrannosaurus rex at the American Museum when he was a child. But the Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton at the time was mounted in a clumsy upright stance, leaning back on its tail. This made it seem like the animal would move by waddling along, like a duck, dragging its tail. This was consistent with the general picture of dinosaurs at the time, as slow, stupid, and clumsy.

In the 90's, however, the Museum remounted the Tyrannosaurus, as we see at right, on January 23, 2019, in a way reflecting new ideas about dinosaur physiology and posture (and paid for, doubtlessly to the fury of the political Left, by libertarian and New York resident David Koch, whose name is on the Hall of Saurischian Dinosaurs -- and now on the plaza before the Metropolitan Museum of Art). Thus, with the spine horizontal and the tail elevated, the Tyrannosaurus is probably considerably more terrifying, with its jaws at eye level, than in the older version. There are still paleontologists who think of dinosaurs as slow, and of Tyrannosaurus as only a scavenger, but the visual impression of this creature is very different. "You should be running," is more what we would think, in the immortal words of Selma Blair (who is a firestarter, ἡ πυρκαεύς, genitive πυρκαέως; or perhaps ἡ πυρκαεῖα, see here) from Hellboy [2004].

This is one of the few skeletons of T. rex that has been mounted using the original bones. Displays like this now typically use casts of the original bones, especially when the excavated skeletons are incomplete, as usually is the case with T. Rex, few of whose complete skeletons survive. The use of casts, however, may have substantilly begun with Andrew Carnegie, who distributed casts to many museums of Diplodocus carnegii [1901], which had been named after him, since the discoverer, Jacob Wortman, worked for the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburg. This is a nice example of Gilded Age philanthropy, which both benefited the public and advertised the magnanimity of Andrew Carnegie, who otherwise gets rememebered for the Homestead steel workers strike (1892). He also donated a lake to Princeton University (1906) -- Lake Carnegie, of course. The President of the University at the time, Woodrow Wilson, who would bring Southern Segregation to the Federal Government as President of the United States, and whose ideal of government was rule by irresponsible bureaucrats, told Carnegie, "We needed bread and you gave us cake."

This display of dinosaur reconstructions goes back to the Cyrstal Palace Exposition of 1851, where models of newly named dinosaurs and a variety of ancient reptiles were put on display. When the Crystal Palace was moved to Sydenham in 1854, the animal models were relocated to an island in the lake of what is now Cyrstal Palace Park. The Crystal Palace itself burned down in 1936, during the brief and ill-starred reign of Edward VIII; but the dinosaurs and their island remains, as we see it below, in 2019. Some of the models are not that different from modern reconstructions, particuarly the Plesiosaurus, who some people think has survived as the Loch Ness Monster -- although Plesiosaurs breathed air, which would require frequent enough surfacing as to rule out the Monster, which mostly seems to remain under water. Three Plesiosaurs are in the photo -- the closest with a duck sleeping by its front flipper. Middle right we also see an Ichthyosaurus, which was reconstructed basking like a seal, although it is now understood to be entirely sea-going, in appearance and habits much like modern dolphins, and even giving live birth -- i.e. there are fossils of gestating Ichthyosaurs in utero.

Signature dinosaurs are the Megalosaurus and Iguanodon, seen below. Unfortunately, the British fossils of these dinosaurs were fragmentary, and early reconstructions imagined that they were quadrupeds. Now it is well understood that both dinosaurs, like many others, were bipeds. This mistake may have contributed to the impression that dinosaurs were weak and sluggish like modern reptiles, while bipedalism implies strength, balance, and speed, all of which imply a higher metabolism than crocodiles, for instance, are capable of. It took many decades for this all to be straightened out, and I only noticed in the 1970's that traditional ideas about dinosaurs, such as I saw growing up in the 1950's, were being demolished.

Nevertheless, the Cyrstal Palace dinosaurs have a significant place in the history of paleontology. That an ancient landscape and fauna was substantially different from the modern was a new idea in the 19th century. With these models, people could see how different, even if it was not as different as we think now. Some people have still not gotten used to this, and confused believers (outside Hinduism and Buddhism) still like a literal Biblical chronology of no more then 10,000 years for the history of life, which already is twice the period of most such calculations in the Middle Ages, of which everyone should be reminded every Jewish New Year

The variety of life presented here is one of the basic pieces of evidence for Evolution, since the development of one form of life out of another is a simpler explanation (observing "Ockham's Razor") than having the Creator engage in constant supernatural intervention in order to start off each species (including thousands of beetles) at its ordained time and place. Such a piecemeal job of Creation would have offended the sense of earlier theologians that God would act with simplicity, economy, and elegance -- which we still find Einstein expecting of the laws of nature as conceived by God. Advocates of Creationism and Intelligent Design expend far less criticism on their own theology than they do on Darwinism. The idea that God would not have anticipated and created all of history, coiled like a spring, right from the very beginning, ready to unfold on its own, would have offended philosophers like both Spinoza and Leibniz, who otherwise would not have agreed on much.

The following table is preformatted for a fixed, non-proportional type font (like Courier). This preserves the pattern of the classification and its correspondence to the levels of classification given in the window at the top of the webpage. If desired, that window can be eliminated by moving the boundary line. If the font for the tables that appears on your page is not fixed width (non-proportional), the font should be changed by using the "preferences" menu on your browser. On a computer screen more than 640 pixels wide, the width of the windows can be optimized to include the whole width of the table. Any category followed by an asterisk, "*," by the way, is extinct.

The classification of Bacteria in Mr. Friend's book didn't match up very well with that in my older sources, like Margulis and Schwartz. A correspondent pointed out that the Phylum Proteobacteria did not even occur in the table. Thus, I have now included the Phyla for all Bacteria and subdivisions of the Proteobacteria as they are listed at Wikipedia. I have made some effort to match these up with the higher levels of classification already shown, but I don't know enough details to do this very effectively. I've also added the Wikipedia list of Phyla of Archaea (Archaebacteria), which do not correspond to the older names I had. So I end up with a bit of a hash of older and newer nomenclature. The future of classification is certainly to use mathematical formulae for differences in genetic content. There are genes for basic chemical activities in the cell that are basically shared by all living things. Beyond that we get degrees of difference.

Superkingdom Progenotes*.............................................................earliest cells
Superkingdom Archaebacteriae.............surviving archaic & anaerobic prokaryotic single cell life
   Kingdom Protomonera
            Superphylum Methanogenes
               Phylum Methaneocreatrices............................................methane forming
                                                            Genus Methanosarcina
                                                            Genus Methanobacterium
                                                            Genus Methanococcus
            Superphylum Thermoacidophiles.................................chemoautotrophic bacteria
             unclassified
               Phylum Aphragmabacteria?...................................without normal cell walls
               Phylum Thiopneutes?.................................................sulfate reducers
               Phylum Crenarchaeota
               Phylum Euryarchaeota
               Phylum Korarchaeota
               Phylum Nanoarchaeota
Superkingdom Eubacteria.......................................advanced prokaryotic single cell life
   Kingdom Monera
            Superphylum Spirochaetae....................................................spirochetes
               Phylum Spirochaetes
            Superphylum Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria............anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria
            Superphylum Cyanobacteria
               Phlyum Cyanobacteria
            Superphylum Chloroxybacteria..............................green photosynthetic bacteria
               Phlyum Chlorobi
               Phlyum Chloroflexi
            Superphylum Radiation Resistant Bacteria
            Superphylum Micrococci...........................................gram-positive bacteria
             unclassified
               Phylum Fermenting Bacteria?
               Phylum Nitrogen-Fixing Aerobic Bacteria?
               Phylum Pseudomonads?
               Phylum Aeroendospora?
               Phylum Myxobacteria?
               Phylum Omnibacteria?
               Phylum Acidobacteria
               Phlyum Actinobacteria
               Phlyum Aquificae
               Phlyum Bacteroidetes
               Phlyum Chlamydiae
               Phlyum Chrysiogenetes
               Phlyum Deferribacteres
               Phlyum Deinococcus-Thermus
               Phlyum Dictyoglomi
               Phlyum Fibrobacteres
               Phlyum Firmicutes
               Phlyum Fusobacteria
               Phlyum Gemmatimonadetes
               Phlyum Nitrospirae
               Phlyum Planctomycetes
               Phlyum Proteobacteria
                        Class Alpha Proteobacteria
                                    Order Caulobacterales...............................Caulobacter
                                    Order Kordiimonadales
                                    Order Parvularculales
                                    Order Rhizobiales......................................Rhizobia
                                    Order Rhodobacterales
                                    Order Rhodospirillales..............................Acetobacter
                                    Order Rickettsiales..................................Rickettsia
                                    Order Sphingomonadales.............................Sphingomonas
                        Class Beta Proteobacteria
                                    Order Burkholderiales................................Bordetella
                                    Order Hydrogenophilales
                                    Order Methylophilales
                                    Order Neisseriales....................................Neisseria
                                    Order Nitrosomonadales
                                    Order Rhodocyclales
                                    Order Procabacteriales
                        Class Gamma Proteobacteria
                                    Order Acidithiobacillales
                                    Order Aeromonadales...................................Aeromonas
                                    Order Alteromonadales.........................Pseudoalteromonas
                                    Order Cardiobacteriales
                                    Order Chromatiales.......................purple sulfur bacteria
                                    Order Enterobacteriales.............................Escherichia
                                    Order Legionellales..................................Legionella
                                    Order Methylococcales
                                    Order Oceanospirillales
                                    Order Pasteurellales................................Haemophilus
                                    Order Pseudomonadales...............................Pseudomonas
                                    Order Thiotrichales...............................Thiomargarita
                                    Order Vibrionales........................................Vibrio
                                    Order Xanthomonadales...............................Xanthomonas
                        Class Delta Proteobacteria
                                    Order Bdellovibrionales............................Bdellovibrio
                                    Order Desulfobacterales
                                    Order Desulfovibrionales
                                    Order Desulfurellales
                                    Order Desulfarcales
                                    Order Desulfuromonadales..............................Geobacter
                                    Order Myxococcales.................................Myxobacteria
                                    Order Syntrophobacterales
                        Class Epsilon Proteobacteria
                                    Order Campylobacterales............................Helicobacter
                                    Order Nautiliales
               Phylum Thermodesulfobacteria
               Phylum Thermomicrobia
               Phylum Thermotogae
               Phylum Verrucomicrobia
Superkingdom Urkaryotes*...................................prokaryotic cells that became eukaryotes
Superkingdom Eukaryotes............................................cells with nuclei and organelles
   Kingdom Protista..................................................single celled stock eukaryotes
      Subkingdom Protozoa
               Phylum Caryoblastea
               Phylum Ciliophora
               Phylum Actinopoda
               Phylum Dinoflagellata
               Phylum Foraminifera
               Phylum Cnidosporidia
               Phylum Zoomastigina
               Phylum Hyphochytridiomycota
               Phylum Oomycota
               Phylum Apicomplexa
               Phylum Chytridiomycota
      Subkingdom Thallophyta
               Phylum Rhizopoda
               Phylum Gamophyta
               Phylum Cryptophyta
               Phylum Euglenophyta
               Phylum Prasinophyta
               Phylum Chrysophyta
               Phylum Haptophyta
               Phylum Eustigmatophyta
               Phylum Xanthopyta
               Phylum Bacillariophyta
   Kingdom Myxomycophyta.................................................................Slim Molds
               Phylum Labyrinthulamycota.................................................slime nets
                                                            Genus Labyrinthula
                                                            Genus Labyrinthorhiza
               Phylum Acrasiomycota............................................cellular slime molds
                        Class Acrasea
                        Class Dictyostelia
               Phylum Myxomycota............................plasmodial slime molds, 400-500 species
                        Class Echinostelida
                                                   Family Echinosteliidae
                                                            Genus Echinostelium
                                                   Family Clastodermidae
                                                            Genus Clastroderma
                                                            Genus Barbeyella
                        Class Trichida
                        Class Liceida
                        Class Stemontida
                        Class Physarida
               Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota
   Kingdom Plantae
      Subkingdom Algae
               Phylum Rhodophyta...........................................red algae, deep seaweeds
               Phylum Phaeophyta..............................................brown algae, seaweeds
               Phylum Chlorophyta.......................................................green algae
               ?Phylum Charophyta
      Subkingdom Embryophyta
         Infrakingdom Bryophyta
               Phylum Bryophyta
                        Class Hepaticae..................................................liverworts
                        Class Anthocerotae................................................hornworts
                        Class Musci..........................................................mosses
         Infrakingdom Tracheohpyta..................................................vascular plants
            Superphylum Prospermopsida
               Phylum Psilopsida..................................psilophytes, dominant in Devonian
               Phylum Lycopodophyta.......................................dominant in Carboniferous
                        Class Lycopodiae
                                    Order Lycopodiales
                                                   Family Lycopoliaceae.................club mosses
                                                            Genus Lycopodium
               Phylum Sphenophyta...........................dominant in Carboniferous (1 genus now)
                        Class Equisetae
                                    Order Equisetales
                                                   Family Equisetaceae...................horsetails
                                                            Genus Equisetum
               Phylum Filicinophyta (Pteropsida)
                        Class Filicae.........................................................ferns
            Superphylum Spermopsida..............................spermatophyta, embryobearing seeds
               Phylum Gymnospermae
                  Subphylum Pteridospermae...............................................seed ferns
                  Subphylum Ginkgophyta....................................................ginkgoes
                  Subphylum Gnetophyta
                  Subphylum Coniferophyta
                                    Order Coniferales......................................conifers
                                                   Family Taxaceae
                                                            Genus Taxus
                                                   Family Pinaceae
                                                            Genus Pinus.......................pines
                                                            Genus Lari 
                                                            Genus Picea
                                                            Genus Abies
                                                            Genus Tsuga
                                                            Genus Taxodium
                                                            Genus Chamaecyparis
                                                            Genus Thuja
                                                            Genus Juniperus
                  Subphylum Cycadophyta..................................................seed ferns
               Phylum Angiospermophyta
                        Class Monocotyledoneae
                                    Order Liliales
                                                   Family Liliaceae..........................lilies
                                                            Genus Smila 
                        Class Dicotyledoneae
                           Subclass Archichlamydeae
                                    Order Salicales
                                                   Family Salicaceae
                                                            Genus Sali 
                                                            Genus Populus
                                    Order Myricales
                                                   Family Myricaceae....................wax myrtles
                                                            Genus Myrica
                                                            Genus Comptonia
                                    Order Leitneriales
                                                   Family Leitneriaceae
                                                            Genus Leitneria
                                    Order Juglandales
                                                   Family Juglandaceae.......................walnut
                                                            Genus Juglans
                                                            Genus Carya
                                    Order Fagales
                                                   Family Corylaceae
                                                            Genus Corylus
                                                            Genus Ostrya
                                                            Genus Carpinus
                                                            Genus Betula
                                                            Genus Alnu
                                                   Family Fagaceae
                                                            Genus Fagus
                                                            Genus Castanea
                                                            Genus Quercus
                                    Order Urticales
                                                   Family Ulmaceae.............................elms
                                                            Genus Ulmus
                                                            Genus Planera
                                                            Genus Celtis..................hackberry
                                                   Family Moraceae.........................mulberry
                                                            Genus Morus
                                                            Genus Broussonetia
                                                            Genus Maclura
                                    Order Santalales
                                                   Family Santalaceae....................sandalwood
                                                            Genus Pyrularia
                                                            Genus Nestronia
                                                            Genus Buckleya
                                                   Family Loranthaceae
                                                            Genus Phoradendron
                                                            Genus Arceuthobium
                                    Order Aristolochiales
                                                   Family Aristolochiaceae................birthwort
                                                            Genus Aristolochia
                                    Order Ranales
                                                   Family Ranunculaceae
                                                            Genus Clematis
                                                            Genus Xanthorhiza
                                                   Family Berberidaceae....................barberry
                                                            Genus Berberis
                                                   Family Menispermaceae
                                                            Genus Cocculus
                                                            Genus Menispermum
                                                            Genus Calycocarpum
                                                   Family Mangoliaceae.....................magnolia
                                                            Genus Mangolia
                                                            Genus Liriodendron
                                                   Family Calycanthaceae
                                                            Genus Calycanthus
                                                   Family Annonaceae
                                                            Genus Asimina
                                                   Family Lauraceae..........................laurel
                                                            Genus Persea
                                                            Genus Sassafras
                                                            Genus Litsea
                                                            Genus Lindera
                                    Order Rosales
                                                   Family Saxifrangaceae.................saxifrange
                                                            Genus Philadelphus
                                                            Genus Decumaria
                                                            Genus Hydrangea
                                                            Genus Itea
                                                            Genus Ribes
                                                   Family Hamamelidaceae................witch hazel
                                                            Genus Hamamelis
                                                            Genus Fothergilla
                                                            Genus Liquidambar
                                                   Family Platanaceae....................plane tree
                                                            Genus Platanus.................sycamore
                                                   Family Rosaceae............................roses
                                                            Genus Physocarpus
                                                            Genus Spiraea
                                                            Genus Pyrus
                                                            Genus Amelanchier
                                                            Genus Crataegus
                                                            Genus Cotoneaster
                                                            Genus Potentilla
                                                            Genus Dryas
                                                            Genus Rubus
                                                            Genus Rosa
                                                            Genus Runus
                                                   Family Leguminosae.........................beans
                                                            Genus Acacia
                                                            Genus Albizzia
                                                            Genus Gymnocladus
                                                            Genus Gleditsia
                                                            Genus Cercis
                                                            Genus Cladrastis
                                                            Genus Genista
                                                            Genus Cytisus
                                                            Genus Ule 
                                                            Genus Amorpha
                                                            Genus Robinia
                                                            Genus Wisteria
                                                            Genus Colutea
                                                            Genus Lespedeza
                                    Order Geraniales
                                                   Family Rutaceae...........................orange
                                                            Genus Xanthoxylum
                                                            Genus Phellodendron
                                                            Genus Ptelea
                                                            Genus Poncirus
                                                   Family Simaroubaceae
                                                            Genus Ailanthus
                                                   Family Meliaceae........................mahogany
                                                            Genus Melia
                                                   Family Euphorbiaceae
                                                            Genus Andrachne
                                    Order Sapindales
                                                   Family Empetraceae
                                                            Genus Empetrum
                                                            Genus Corema
                                                   Family Anacardiaceae
                                                            Genus Cotinus
                                                            Genus Rhus
                                                   Family Cyrillaceae
                                                            Genus Cyrilla
                                                   Family Aquifoliaceae.......................holly
                                                            Genus Ile 
                                                            Genus Nemopanthus
                                                   Family Celastraceae
                                                            Genus Euonymus
                                                            Genus Pachistima
                                                            Genus Celastrus
                                                   Family Staphylaceae
                                                            Genus Staphylea
                                                   Family Aceraceae
                                                            Genus Acer........................maple
                                                   Family Hippocastanaceae
                                                            Genus Aesculus
                                                   Family Sapindaceae
                                                            Genus Sapindus................soapberry
                                    Order Rhamnales
                                                   Family Rhamnaceae
                                                            Genus Berchemia
                                                            Genus Rhamnus
                                                            Genus Ceanothus
                                                   Family Vitaceae............................vines
                                                            Genus Ampelopsis
                                                            Genus Cissus
                                                            Genus Parthenocissus
                                                            Genus Vitis
                                    Order Mavales...........................................mallows
                                                   Family Tiliaceae
                                                            Genus Tilia
                                                   Family Malvaceae..........................mallow
                                                            Genus Hibiscus.................hibiscus
                                    Order Parietales
                                                   Family Theaceae
                                                            Genus Stewartia
                                                   Family Guttiferae
                                                            Genus Ascyrum
                                                            Genus Hypericum
                                                   Family Tamaricaceae
                                                            Genus Tamari 
                                                   Family Cistaceae
                                                            Genus Hudsonia
                                    Order Myrtales
                                                   Family Thymelaeaceae
                                                            Genus Dirca
                                                            Genus Daphne
                                                   Family Elaeagnaceae
                                                            Genus Eleagnus
                                                            Genus Shepherdia
                                                   Family Lythraceae....................loosestrife
                                                            Genus Decodon
                                                   Family Nyssaceae........................sour gum
                                                            Genus Nyssa
                                    Order Umbellales
                                                   Family Araliaceae
                                                            Genus Aralia
                                                            Genus Oplophana 
                                                            Genus Hedera
                                                   Family Cornaceae.........................dogwood
                                                            Genus Cornus
                           Subclass Metachlamydeae
                                    Order Ericales
                                                   Family Clethraceae
                                                            Genus Clethra
                                                   Family Pyrolaceae....................wintergreen
                                                            Genus Chimaphla
                                                   Family Ericaceae...........................heath
                                                            Genus Ledum
                                                            Genus Rhododendron
                                                            Genus Menziesia
                                                            Genus Leiophyllum
                                                            Genus Loiseleuria
                                                            Genus Kalmia
                                                            Genus Phyllodoce
                                                            Genus Andromeda
                                                            Genus Zenobia
                                                            Genus Pieris
                                                            Genus Lyonia
                                                            Genus Leucothoÿeu
                                                            Genus Oxydendrum
                                                            Genus Chamaedaphne
                                                            Genus Cassiope
                                                            Genus Epigaea
                                                            Genus Gaultheria
                                                            Genus Arctostaphylos
                                                            Genus Calluna
                                                            Genus Erica
                                                            Genus Gaylussacia
                                                            Genus Vaccinium
                                    Order Ebenales
                                                   Family Sapotaaceae.....................sapodilla
                                                            Genus Bumelia
                                                   Family Ebenaceae...........................ebony
                                                            Genus Diospyros
                                                   Family Symplocaceae
                                                            Genus Symplocos
                                                   Family Styracaceae
                                                            Genus Halesia................silverbell
                                                            Genus Styrax...................snowbell
                                    Order Oleales
                                                   Family Oleaceae............................olive
                                                            Genus Fraxinus
                                                            Genus Syringa
                                                            Genus Forestiera
                                                            Genus Chionanthus
                                                            Genus Osmanthus
                                                            Genus Ligustrum
                                    Order Gentianales
                                                   Family Loganiaceae.......................logania
                                                            Genus Gelsemium
                                                   Family Asclepiadaceae...................milkweed
                                                            Genus Periploca
                                    Order Solanales (Polemoniales)
                                                   Family Verbenaceae.......................verbena
                                                            Genus Callicarpa
                                                   Family Solanaceae.....................nightshade
                                                      Subfamily Solanaceae
                                                            Genus Solanum
                                                               species lycopersicon..........tomato
                                                               species tuberosum.............potato
                                                               species melongena...........eggplant
                                                               species dulcamara.........nightshade
                                                            Genus Capsicum............chile peppers
                                                               species annuum...bell, cayenne, etc.
                                                               species baccatum.................aji
                                                               species frutescens...........tabasco
                                                               species pubescens.............rocoto
                                                               species chinense............habanero
                                                            Genus Mandragora...............mandrake
                                                            Genus Datura................Jimson Weed
                                                            Genus Lycium..................wolfberry
                                                      Subfamily Nicotianoideae..............tobacco
                                                   Family Scrophulariaceae..................figwort
                                                            Genus Paulownia
                                                   Family Bignoniaceae......................begonia
                                                            Genus Campsis
                                                            Genus Bignonia
                                                            Genus Catalpa
                                    Order Rubiales
                                                   Family Rubiaceae..........................madder
                                                            Genus Mitchella
                                                            Genus Caphalanthus
                                                   Family Caprifolliaceae...............honeysuckle
                                                            Genus Diervilla
                                                            Genus Lonicera
                                                            Genus Symphoricarpos
                                                            Genus Linnaea
                                                            Genus Vibirnum
                                                            Genus Sambucus
                                    Order Campanulales
                                                   Family Compositae
                                                            Genus Baccharis
                                                            Genus Iva
                                                            Genus Borrichia
                                                            Genus Calendula................marigold
                                                            Genus Tagetes..................marigold
                                    Order Cyperales....grasses, 8,000 to 10,000 species
                                                   Family Poaceae/Gramineae
                                                      Subfamily Pooideae
                                                      Subfamily Panicoideae
                                                      Subfamily Bambusoideae
                                                      Subfamily Chloridoideae
                                                      Subfamily Arundinoideae
                                                      Subfamily Oryzoideae
   Kingdom Fungi
               Phylum Zygomycota
                        Class Mucorales
                        Class Entomophthorales
                        Class Zoopagales
               Phylum Ascomycota
                        Class Hemiascomycetae
                        Class Euascomycetae
                        Class Loculoascomycetae
                        Class Laboulbeniomyceatae
               Phylum Basidiomycota
                        Class Heterobasidiomycetae
                        Class Homobasidiomycetae
               Phylum Deuteromycota
                        Class Sphaeropsida
                        Class Melanconia
                        Class Monilia
                        Class Mycelia Sterilia
               Phylum Mycophycophyta........................................................Lichens
   Kingdom Animalia
      Subkingdom Parazoa
               Phylum Placozoa..........................................................one species
                                                            Genus Trichopla 
               Phylum Porifera..............................................................sponges
                        Class Calcarea...............................................chalky sponges
                        Class Hexactinellida..........................................glass sponges
                        Class Desmospongiae
                        Class Sclerospongiae
      Subkingdom Mesozoa...........................................like Porifera but have one organ
               Phylum Mesozoa
                        Class Dicyemida
                        Class Orthonectida
      Subkingdom Metazoa..............................tissues organized into organs & organ systems
         Infrakingdom Radiata..................................................two layers of tissue
               Phylum Coelenterata
                        Class Hydrozoa
                        Class Scyphozoa...................................................jellyfish
                        Class Anthozoa........................................sea anemones & corals
               Phylum Ctenophora.......................................................comb jellies
                        Class Tentaculata
                        Class Nuda
         Infrakingdom Acoelomata.............................three tissue layers but no body cavity
               Phylum Acoelomata
                  Subphylum Platyhelminthes...............................................flatworms
                        Class Turbellaria......................................freeliving flatworms
                        Class Trematoda......................................................flukes
                        Class Cestoda.....................................................tapeworms
                  Subphylum Nemertina...............................................proboscis worms
         Infrakingdom Pseudocoelomata....................body cavity but not surrounded by mesoderm
               Phylum Pseudocoelomata
                  Subphylum Acanthocephala.......................................spiny-headed worms
                  Subphylum Aschelminthes
                        Class Rotifera.....................................................rotifers
                        Class Gastrotricha
                        Class Kinorhyncha
                        Class Priapulida
                        Class Nematoda..................................................round worms
                        Class Nematomorpha..........................................horsehair worms
                  Subphylum Entoprocta
         Infrakingdom Coelomata........................body cavity surrounded by mesoderm, a coelom
            Superphylum Protostomia........................................blastopore becomes mouth
               Phylum Lophophorata
                  Subphylum Ectoprocta......................................bryozoans, moss animals
                        Class Gymnolaemata
                        Class Phylactolaemata
                  Subphylum Phoronida
                  Subphylum Brachiopoda.................................................lamp shells
                        Class Inarticulata
                        Class Articulata
               Phylum Mollusca.............................................................molluscs
                        Class Amphineura
                        Class Monoplacophora
                        Class Gastropoda.....................................................snails
                        Class Scaphopoda
                        Class Pelecypoda...................................................bivalves
                        Class Cephalopoda......................................squids, octopi, etc.
                           Subclass Nautiloidea..........................two genera, external shell
                                    Order Nautilida
                                                   Family Nautilidae
                                                            Genus Nautilus.......chambered nautilus
                                                            Genus Allonautilus......Crusty nautilus

                                    Order Bacritina*..............ancestors of Ammonites & Coleoids
                           Subclass Ammonoidea*......................Ammonites, exinct Celphalopods
                                    Order Clymeniina*
                                    Order Anarcestina*
                                    Order Prolecantina*
                                    Order Goniatitina*
                                    Order Ceratitina*
                                    Order Lytoceratina*
                                    Order Ancyloceratina*
                                    Order Ammonitina*................................true Ammonites
                                    Order Phylloceratina*
                           Subclass Coleoidea........................internal, reduced, or no shell
                                 Superorder Octopodiformes...............................eight legs
                                    Order Belemnitina*...................................belemnites
                                    Order Octopoda...........................octopuses, 150 species
                                       Suborder Cirrina...................finned deep-sea octopuses
                                                   Family Cirroteuthidae
                                                   Family Opisthoteuthidae
                                       Suborder Incirrina
                                                   Family Bolitaenidae.........gelatinous octopuses
                                                   Family Amphitretidae...........telescope octopus
                                                   Family Vitreledonellidae...........glass octopus
                                                Superfamily Argonautoidea
                                                   Family Argonautidae....................Argonauts
                                                   Family Ocythoidae...............football octopus
                                                   Family Tremoctopodidae.........blanket octopuses
                                                   Family Alloposidae.............seven-arm octopus
                                                   Family Octopodidae.............benthic octopuses
                                    Order Vampyromorpha
                                                   Family Vampyroteuthidae............vampire squid
                                 Superorder Decapodiformes...............eight legs & two tentacles
                                    Order Spirulida
                                                   Family Spirulidae...............Ram's Horn Squid
                                    Order Sepiida
                                                   Family Sepiidae.....................cuttlefishes
                                    Order Sepiolida
                                                   Family Sepiolidae.................bobtail squids
                                                   Family Sepiariidae.............bottletail squids
                                    Order Idiosepiida
                                                   Family Idiosepiidae.................pygmy squids
                                    Order Teuthida...........................................squids
                                       Suborder Myopsina
                                                   Family Loliginidae.....inshore & calamari squids
                                                            Genus Loligo...............market squid
                                                            Genus Sepioteuthis.............Calamari
                                                   Family Pickfordiateuthidae..........grass squids
                                       Suborder Oegopsina
                                                   Family Architeuthidae
                                                            Genus Architeuthis..........giant squid
                                                   Family Bathyteuthidae
                                                   Family Chtenopterygidae.......comb-finned squids
                                                   Family Cranchiidae..................glass squids
                                                   Family Enoploteuthidae
                                                   Family Gonatidae..................armhook squids
                                                   Family Histioteuthidae..............jewel squids
                                                   Family Joubiniteuthidae..........Joubin's squids
                                                   Family Magnapinnidae...............bigfin squids
                                                   Family Octopoteuthidae..........eight-arm squids
                                                   Family Mastigoteuthidae.........whip-lash squids
                                                   Family Chiroteuthidae
                                                   Family Ommastrephidae..............flying squids
                                                   Family Onychoteuthidae.............hooked squids
                                                   Family Pyroteuthidae.................fire squids
                                                   Family Thysanoteuthidae..........rhomboid squids
               Phylum Sipunculida
               Phylum Echiurida
               Phylum Annelida......................................................segmented worms
                        Class Polychaeta......................................sand worms, tubeworms
                        Class Oligochaeta................................................earthworms
                        Class Hirudinea.....................................................leeches
               Phylum Onychophora
               Phylum Tardigrada.........................................................water bear
               Phylum Pentastomida
               Phylum Arthropoda
                  Subphylum Trilobita*.........................trilobites, extinct end of Paleozoic
                  Subphylum Chelicerata
                        Class Eurypterida*
                        Class Xiphosura.............................................horseshoe crabs
                                    Order Xiphosura....................................four species
                                                            Genus Limulus.....Delaware horshoe crab
                        Class Arachnida.............................spiders, scorpions, ticks, etc.
                        Class Pycnogonida...............................................sea spiders
                  Subphylum Mandibulata
                        Class Crustacea
                           Subclass Malacostraca
                                 Superorder Eucarida
                                    Order Decapoda
                                          Infraorder Stenopodidea
                                          Infraorder Caridea................................shrimps
                                          Infraorder Penaeidea...............................prawns
                                          Infraorder Astacidea.............................lobsters
                                          Infraorder Palinuridea...........................lobsters
                                          Infraorder Anomura..................................crabs
                                          Infraorder Brachyura...........................true crabs
                                                Superfamily Ocypodoidea
                                                   Family Dotillidae
                                                            Genus Scopimera......Sand Bubbler Crabs
                                                               species inflata...........Australian
                                                            Genus Dotilla........Sand Bubbler Crabs
                                                               species myctiroides....Bay of Bengal
                                          Infraorder Thalassinidea
                                    Order Euphausiacea
                                                   Family Thysanopodidae......................Krill
                                 Superorder Hoplocarida
                                    Order Stomatopoda................................mantis shrimps
                                 Superorder Peracarida
                                    Order Amphipoda.......................................amphipods
                                    Order Isopoda
                           Subclass Maxillipoda
                              Infraclass Cirripedia
                              Infraclass Copepoda
                        Class Chilopoda...................................................centipeds
                        Class Diplopoda....................................................millpeds
                        Class Pauropoda
                        Class Symphyla
                        Class Insecta
                                    Order Colembola.....................................springtails
                                    Order Protura
                                    Order Deplura
                                    Order Thysanura....................................bristletails
                                    Order Embiaria
                                    Order Plecoptera.....................................stoneflies
                                    Order Zoraptera
                                    Order Hemiptera..............cicadas, aphids, leafhoppers, etc.
                                    Order Neuroptera................................lacewings, etc.
                           Subclass Pterygota
                                    Order Odonata.......................................dragonflies
                                    Order Orthoptera............grasshopers, crickets, cockcroaches
                                    Order Dermaptera........................................earwigs
                                    Order Corrodentia.....................................book lice
                                    Order Mallophaga...................................chewing lice
                                    Order Anoplura.....................................sucking lice
                                    Order Thysanoptera.......................................thrips
                                    Order Coleoptera.........................bettles, weevils, etc.
                                    Order Hymenoptera.......................wasps, bees, ants, etc.
                                    Order Mecoptera...................................scorpionflies
                                    Order Siphonaptera........................................fleas
                                    Order Diptera............................true flies, mosquitoes
                                    Order Trichoptera...................................caddisflies
                                    Order Lepidoptera............................moths, butterflies
                              "Division" Palaeoptera
                                 Superorder Ephemeropterioidea
                                    Order Ephemerida/Ephermeroptera........................mayflies
                                       Suborder Pannota
                                                Superfamily Caenoidea
                                                   Family Baetiscidae
                                                   Family Caenidae
                                                   Family Neoephemeridae
                                                   Family Prosopistomatidae
                                                Superfamily Ephemerelloidea
                                                   Family Ephemerellidae
                                                   Family Leptohyphidae
                                                   Family Tricorythidae
                                       Suborder Schistonota
                                                Superfamily Ephemeroida
                                                   Family Ephemeridae
                                                            Genus Ephemera...........Linnean Mayfly
                                       Suborder Furcatergalia
            Superphylum Deuterostomia.......................................blastopore becomes anus
               Phylum Pogonophora........................................................bear worms
               Phylum Echinodermata........................................................starfish
                        Class Crinoidea..................................................sea lilies
                        Class Asteroidea...................................................starfish
                        Class Ophiuroidea.......................................brittle stars, etc.
                        Class Echinoidea............................sea urchins, sand dollars, etc.
                        Class Holothuroidea...........................................sea cucumbers
               Phylum Chaetognatha
               Phylum Chordata
                  Subphylum Hemichordata
                        Class Enteropneusta.............................................arrow worms
                        Class Pterobranchia
                  Subphylum Cephalochordata......................................lancets, amphiocus
                  Subphylum Urochordata...................................................tunicates
                        Class Ascidiacea................................................sea squirts
                        Class Thaliacea
                        Class Larvacea
                  Subphylum Vertebrata
                     Superclass Pisces
                        Class Agnatha
                           Subclass Monorhina...........................dorsal nostril between eyes
                                    Order Cephalaspida*
                                    Order Anaspida*
                           Subclass Diplorhina....................................no dorsal nostril
                                    Order Pteraspida*
                                    Order Coelolepida*
                           Subclass Cyclostomata..............................modern jawless fishes
                                    Order Myxiniformes....................................hagfishes
                                    Order Petromyzontiformes..............................hagfishes
                        Class Placodermi.........................................first jawed fishes
                                    Order Arthrodira*
                                    Order Pyctodontida*
                                    Order Petalichthyida*
                                    Order Antiarchi*
                                    Order Rhenanida*
                                    Order Phyllolopida*
                                    Order Palaeospondyloidea*
                        Class Acanthodii...............................................spiny fishes
                                    Order Climatiformes*
                                    Order Ischnacanthiformes*
                                    Order Acanthodiformes*
                        Class Chondrichthyes....................................cartilainous fishes
                           Subclass Elasmobranchii...........................................sharks
                                    Order Clasdoselachiformes*
                                    Order Pleuracanthiformes*
                                    Order Heterodontiformes
                                    Order Hexanchiformes
                                    Order Lamniformes
                                       Suborder Galeoidei........................most living sharks
                                       Suborder Squaloidei..........................dogfishes, etc.
                                       Suborder Batoidei..............................skates & rays
                           Subclass Holocephali...........................................sharklike
                                    Order Chimaeriformes.....................chimaeras or ratfishes
                        Class Osteichthyes..............................................bony fishes
                           Subclass Actinopterygii.................................rayfinned fishes
                              Infraclass Chondrostei............................primitive rayfinned
                                    Order Palaeonisciformes*
                                    Order Polypteriformes
                                    Order Acipenseriformes
                              Infraclass Holostei............................intermediate rayfinned
                                    Order Semionotiformes*
                                    Order Pycnodontiformes*
                                    Order Amiiformes
                                    Order Aspidorhynchiformes*
                              Infraclass Teleostei.................................advanced rayfins
                                 Superorder Pholidophoromorpha*
                                    Order Pholidophoriformes*
                                 Superorder Leptolepidomorpha*
                                    Order Leptolepiformes*
                                 Superorder Elopomorpha
                                    Order Elopiformes
                                    Order Anguilliformes.......................................eels
                                    Order Notocanthiformes
                                 Superorder Clupeomorpha
                                    Order Clupeiformes.....................................herrings
                                 Superorder Osteoglossomorpha
                                    Order Osteoglossiformes
                                    Order Mormyriformes
                                 Superorder Protacanthopterygii
                                    Order Salmoniformes..............................salmon & trout
                                    Order Ctenothrissiformes*
                                    Order Gonorhynchiformes
                                 Superorder Ostariophysi
                                    Order Cypriniformes.........................minnows, carp, etc.
                                    Order Siluriformes......................................catfish
                                 Superorder Paracanthopterygii
                                    Order Polymi iiformes
                                    Order Percopsiformes
                                    Order Gadiformes...................................cod, haddock
                                    Order Batrachoidiformes
                                    Order Lophiiformes......................................anglers
                                    Order Gobiesociformes
                                 Superorder Atherinomorpha
                                    Order Atheriniformes................................flying fish
                                 Superorder Acanthopterygii
                                    Order Beryciformes
                                    Order Zeiformes
                                    Order Lampridiformes
                                    Order Gasterosteiformes..............................sea horses
                                    Order Channiformes
                                    Order Synbranchiformes
                                    Order Scorpaeniformes
                                    Order Dactylopteriformes
                                    Order Pegasiformes
                                    Order Perciformes
                                                   Family Pomacentridae
                                                      Subfamily Amphiprioninae...........clown fish
                                                            Genus Amphiprion
                                                            Genus Premnas
                                    Order Pleuronectiformes
                                    Order Tetraodontiformes
                           Subclass Sarcopterygii................................lobe-finned fishes
                                    Order Crossopterygii
                                       Suborder Rhipidistia*
                                                Superfamily Osteolepiformes*
                                                Superfamily Porolepiformes*
                                       Suborder Coelacanthini
                                                            Genus Latimeria..............Coelacanth
                                    Order Dipnoi.........................................lungfishes
                     Superclass Tetrapoda
                        Class Amphibia
                           Subclass Labyrinthodontia*
                                    Order Ichthyostegalia*
                                    Order Temnospondyli*
                                       Suborder Rhachitomi*
                                       Suborder Stereospondyli*
                                       Suborder Plagiosauria*
                                    Order Anthracosauria*
                                       Suborder Schizomeri*
                                       Suborder Diplomeri*
                                       Suborder Embolomeri*
                                       Suborder Seymouriamorpha*
                           Subclass Lepospondyli*
                                    Order Nectridia*
                                    Order Aistopoda*
                                    Order Mecrosauria*
                           Sublcass Lissamphibia..................................modern amphibians
                                 Superorder Salientia.................................frogs & toads
                                    Order Proanura*
                                    Order Anura................................modern frogs & toads
                                 Superorder Caudata
                                    Order Urodela...............................salamanders & newts
                                    Order Apoda
                        Class Reptilia
                           Subclass Anapsida............................................solid skull
                                    Order Cotylosauria*
                                       Suborder Gephyrostegomorpha*
                                       Suborder Captorhinomorpha*
                                       Suborder Procolophonia*
                                       Suborder Diadectomorpha*
                                    Order Chelonia..........................................turtles
                                       Suborder Proganochelydia*
                                       Suborder Amphichelydia*
                                       Suborder Pleurodira
                                       Suborder Cryptodira
                                       Suborder Eunotosuria*
                                    Order Mesosauria*
                           Subclass Synapsida..................................mammal-like reptiles
                                    Order Pelycosauria*
                                       Suborder Ophiacodontia*
                                       Suborder Sphenacodontia...........................carnivores
                                       Suborder Edaphosauria.............................herbivores
                                    Order Therapsida*
                                       Suborder Anomodontia*
                                          Infraorder Dromasauria*
                                          Infraorder Dinocephalia*
                                          Infraorder Venyukoviamorpha*
                                          Infraorder Dicynodontia*
                                       Suborder Phthinosuchia*
                                       Suborder Theriodontia*
                                          Infraorder Gorgonopsia*
                                          Infraorder Therocephalia*
                                          Infraorder Bauriamorpha*
                                          Infraorder Cynodontia*
                                          Infraorder Tritylodontia*
                                          Infraorder Ictidosauria*
                           Subclass Euryapsida.............................may be modified Diapsids
                                    Order Protorosuria*
                                    Order Sauropterygia*
                                       Suborder Nothosauria*
                                                Superfamily Pistosauroidea*
                                                Superfamily Pliosauroidea*
                                                Superfamily Plesiosauroidea*
                                    Order Placodontia*
                                                   Family Placodontidae*
                                                   Family Cyamodontidae*
                                                   Family Henodontidae*
                                    Order Ichthysosauria*
                                                   Family Utatsusauridae*
                                                   Family Omphalosauridae*
                                                   Family Mixosauridae*
                                                   Family Shastasauridae*
                                                   Family Ichthyosauridae*
                                                            Genus Ichthyosaurus........dolphin-like
                                                   Family Stenopterygiidae*
                                                   Family Protoichtyosauridae*
                                                   Family Leptopterygiidae*
                           Subclass Diapsida
                              Infraclass Lepidosauria
                                    Order Eosuchia*
                                    Order Rhynchocephalia
                                    Order Squamata.................................lizards & snakes
                                       Suborder Lacertilia, Sauria..........................lizards
                                                   Family Bavarisauridae*
                                                   Family Eichstaettisauridae*
                                          Infraorder Iguania
                                                   Family Arretosauridae*
                                                   Family Euposauridae*
                                                   Family Corytophanidae.........casquehead lizards
                                                   Family Iguanidae...iguanas and spinytail iguanas
                                                   Family Phrynosomatidae......horned lizards, etc.
                                                   Family Polychrotidae......................anoles
                                                   Family Leiosauridae............see Polychrotinae
                                                   Family Tropiduridae...neotropical ground lizards
                                                   Family Liolaemidae..............see Tropidurinae
                                                   Family Leiocephalidae...........see Tropidurinae
                                                   Family Crotaphytidae..collared & leopard lizards
                                                   Family Opluridae.............Madagascar iguanids
                                                   Family Hoplocercidae.....wood lizards, clubtails
                                                   Family Priscagamidae*
                                                   Family Isodontosauridae*
                                                   Family Agamidae..........agamas, frilled lizards
                                                   Family Chamaeleonidae.................chameleons
                                          Infraorder Gekkota
                                                   Family Gekkonidae.........................geckos
                                                   Family Pygopodidae................legless geckos
                                                   Family Dibamidae...................blind lizards
                                          Infraorder Scincomorpha
                                                   Family Paramacellodidae*
                                                   Family Slavoiidae*
                                                   Family Scincidae..........................skinks
                                                   Family Cordylidae..............spinytail lizards
                                                   Family Gerrhosauridae.............plated lizards
                                                   Family Xantusiidae.................night lizards
                                                   Family Lacertidae...wall lizards or true lizards
                                                   Family Mongolochamopidae*
                                                   Family Adamisauridae*
                                                   Family Teiidae*..............tegus and whiptails
                                                   Family Gymnophthalmidae.......spectacled lizards
                                          Infraorder Diploglossa
                                                   Family Anguidae.........slowworms, glass lizards
                                                   Family Anniellidae......American legless lizards
                                                   Family Xenosauridae..........knob-scaled lizards
                                          Infraorder Platynota, Varanoidea
                                                   Family Varanidae.................monitor lizards
                                                   Family Lanthanotidae.....earless monitor lizards
                                                   Family Helodermatidae........Gila monsters, etc.
                                                   Family Mosasauridae*..............marine lizards
                                                         Tribe Mosasaurini*
                                                            Genus Mosasaurus*.............Mosasaurs
                                       Suborder Ophidia, Serpentes...........................snakes
                                          Infraorder Alethinophidia
                                                   Family Acrochordidae.................Wart snakes
                                                   Family Aniliidae...............False coral snake
                                                   Family Anomochilidae...........Dwarf pipe snakes
                                                   Family Boidae...............................Boas
                                                   Family Bolyeriidae...............Splitjaw snakes
                                                   Family Colubridae.................Typical snakes
                                                   Family Cylindrophiidae.........Asian pipe snakes
                                                   Family Elapidae..........................Elapids
                                                   Family Homalopsidae..................Homalopsids
                                                   Family Lamprophiidae................Lamprophiids
                                                   Family Loxocemidae.......Mexican burrowing snake
                                                   Family Pareidae..............Snail-eating snakes
                                                   Family Pythonidae........................Pythons
                                                   Family Tropidophiidae.................Dwarf boas
                                                   Family Uropeltidae..........Shield-tailed snakes
                                                   Family Viperidae..........................Vipers
                                                   Family Xenodermida....Dragon & odd-scaled snakes
                                                   Family Xenopeltidae...............Sunbeam snakes
                                                   Family Xenophidiidae..........Spine-jawed snakes
                                          Infraorder Scolecophidia
                                                   Family Anomalepidae.......Primitive blind snakes
                                                   Family Gerrhopilidae....Indo-Malayan blindsnakes
                                                   Family Leptotyphlopidae.....Slender blind snakes
                                                   Family Typhlopidae..........Typical blind snakes
                                                   Family Xenotyphlopidae....Round-nosed blindsnake
                              Infraclass Archosauria
                                    Order Thecodontia*.......................ancestors of dinosaurs
                                       Suborder Proterosuchia*
                                       Suborder Pseudosuchia*
                                       Suborder Aetosauria*
                                       Suborder Phytosauria*
                                    Order Crocodilia
                                       Suborder Protosuchia*
                                       Suborder Mesosuchia*
                                       Suborder Sebecosuchia*
                                       Suborder Eusuchia
                        Class Endosauropsida....................................dinosaurs and birds
                           Subclass Dinosauria*
                                    Order Ornithischia........................bird hipped dinosaurs
                                       Suborder Ornithopoda*
                                                   Family Fabrosauirdae*
                                                   Family Heterodontosauridae*
                                                   Family Dryosauridae*
                                                   Family Hypsilophodontidae*
                                                   Family Iguanodontidae*
                                                            Genus Camptosaurus*
                                                            Genus Iguanodon*
                                                   Family Hadrosauridae*
                                                            Genus Hadrosaurus*
                                       Suborder Pachycephalosauria*
                                                   Family Pachycephalosauridae*
                                                   Family Homalocephalidae*
                                       Suborder Stegosauria*
                                                   Family Scelidosauridae*
                                                   Family Stegosauridae*
                                                            Genus Stegosaurus*
                                       Suborder Ankylosauria*
                                                   Family Nodosauridae*
                                                   Family Ankylosauridae*
                                                            Genus Ankylosaurus*
                                       Suborder Ceratopsia*
                                                   Family Psittacosauridae*
                                                   Family Protoceratopsidae*
                                                   Family Ceratopsidae*
                                                            Genus Monoclonius*
                                                            Genus Styracosaurus*
                                                            Genus Chasmosaurus*
                                                            Genus Triceratops*
                                    Order Saurischia........................lizard hipped dinosaurs
                                     unclassified
                                          Infraorder Segnosauria*
                                                            Genus Segnosaurus*
                                       Suborder Palaeopoda*
                                          Infraorder Palaeosauriscia*
                                          Infraorder Plateosauria*
                                       Suborder Sauropodamorpha*
                                          Infraorder Plateosauria*
                                                   Family Anchisauridae*
                                                   Family Melanorosauridae*
                                                   Family Blikanasauridae*
                                          Infraorder Sauropoda*
                                                   Family Cetiosauridae
                                                   Family Diplodocidae*
                                                            Genus Amphicoelias*
                                                      Subfamily Apatosaurinae*
                                                            Genus Apatosaurus*
                                                               species ajax*
                                                               species louisae*
                                                            Genus Brontosaurus*
                                                               species excelsus*
                                                               species yahnahpin*
                                                               species parvus*
                                                      Subfamily Diplodocinae*
                                                            Genus Tornieria*
                                                            Genus Supersaurus*
                                                            Genus Leinkupal*
                                                            Genus Galeamopus*
                                                            Genus Diplodocus*
                                                               species carnegii*
                                                               species hallorum*
                                                            Genus Kaatedocus*
                                                            Genus Barosaurus*
                                                               species lentus*
                                                   Family Brachiosauridae*
                                                            Genus Brachiosaurus*
                                                            Genus Bothriospondylus*
                                                   Family Titanosauridae*
                                                            Genus Alamosaurus*
                                                   Family Camarasaurideae*
                                                            Genus Camarasaurus*
                                                   Family Euhelopodidae
                                       Suborder Theropoda*
                                                   Family Podokesauridae*
                                                   Family Shanshanosauridae*
                                                   Family Elmisauridae*
                                          Infraorder Coelurosauria*
                                                   Family Compsognathidae
                                                   Family Coeluridae*
                                          Infraorder Ornithomimosauria*
                                                   Family Oviraptoridae*
                                                   Family Ornithomimidae*
                                                            Genus Ornithomimus*
                                                            Genus Struthiomimus*
                                          Infraorder Deinonychosauria*
                                                   Family Deinocheiridae*
                                                   Family Dromaeosauridae*
                                                            Genus Deinonychus*
                                                   Family Saurornithoididae*
                                                   Family Therezinosauridae*
                                          Infraorder Carnosauria*
                                                   Family Megalosauridae*
                                                            Genus Megasaurus*
                                                   Family Allosauridae*
                                                            Genus Allosaurus*
                                                   Family Dryptosauridae*
                                                   Family Ceratosauridae*
                                                   Family Spinosauridae*
                                                Superfamily Tyrannosauroidea*
                                                 unclassified
                                                            Genus Alectrosaurus*
                                                            Genus Appalachiosaurus*
                                                            Genus Aviatryannis*
                                                            Genus Dilong*
                                                            Genus Drypotosaurus*
                                                            Genus Eotyrannus*
                                                            Genus Juratyrant*
                                                            Genus Santanaraptor*
                                                            Genus Xiongguanlong*
                                                            Genus Raptorex*
                                                            Genus Yutyrannus*
                                                   Family Protocertosaurids*
                                                            Genus Guanlong*
                                                            Genus Kileskus*
                                                            Genus Proceratosaurus*
                                                            Genus Sinotyrannus*
                                                   Family Tryannosauridae*
                                                      Subfamily Albertosaurines*
                                                            Genus Albertosaurus*
                                                            Genus Gorgosaurus*
                                                      Subfamily Tyrannosaurines*
                                                            Genus Alioramus*
                                                               species altai*
                                                               species remotus*
                                                            Genus Daspletosaurus*
                                                            Genus Lythronax*
                                                            Genus Nanuqsaurus*
                                                            Genus Qianzhousaurus*
                                                            Genus Tarbosaurus*
                                                            Genus Teratophoneus*
                                                            Genus Tyrannosaurus*
                                                               species rex*
                                                            Genus Zhuchengtyrannus*
                                    Order Pterosauria*
                                       Suborder Rhamphorhynchoidea*
                                       Suborder Pterodactyloidea*
                           Subclass Aves........................................birds, 9000 species
                              Infraclass Archaeornithes*
                                    Order Archaeopterygiformes*
                              Infraclass Neornithes
                                 Superorder Odontognathae*
                                    Order Hesperornitheforms*
                                    Order Ichthyornitheformes*
                                 Superorder Palaeognathae, Ratites [note]
                                    Order Struthioniformes
                                                   Family Struthionidae
                                                            Genus Struthio................Ostriches
                                                               species asiaticus*.....Asian Ostrich
                                                               species molybdonphanes........Somali
                                                               species camelus..............Ostrich
                                                                  variety australis...South African
                                                                  variety syriacus*.........Arabian
                                                                  variety camelus.....North African
                                                                  variety massaicus...Masai Ostrich
                                    (Order)
                                       Suborder Rheiformes
                                                   Family Opisthodactylidae*
                                                   Family Rheidae.............................rheas
                                       (Suborder)
                                          (Infraorder)
                                             Parvorder Dinornithiformes/Tinamiformes
                                                   Family Dinornithidae*.......................moas
                                                   Family Tinamidae.........South American tinamous
                                          (Infraorder)
                                             Parvorder Casuariiformes
                                                   Family Casuariidae...................cassowaries
                                                   Family Dromaiidae...........................emus
                                                   Family Dromornithidae
                                             Parvorder Aepyornithiformes/Apterygiformes
                                                   Family Aepyornithidae*............elephant birds
                                                   Family Apterygidae.........................kiwis
                                 Superorder Neognathae
                                    Order Gaviiformes
                                                   Family Gaviidae............................loons
                                    Order Podicipediformes
                                                   Family Podicipedidae......................grebes
                                    Order Procellariiformes...................albatrosses & petrels
                                                   Family Diomedeidae...................albatrosses
                                                   Family Procellariidae.......shearwaters, petrels
                                                   Family Hydrobatidae................storm-petrels
                                    Order Sphenisciformes..................................penguins
                                    Order Pelecaniformes...................................pelicans
                                                   Family Phaethontidae.................tropicbirds
                                                   Family Sulidae.................gannets & boobies
                                                   Family Pelecanidae......................pelicans
                                                   Family Phalacrocoracidae..............cormorants
                                                   Family Anhingidae.......................anhingas
                                                   Family Fregatidae...................frigatebirds
                                    Order Ciconoiiformes............................herons & storks
                                                   Family Ardeidae.......herons, egrets, & bitterns
                                                   Family Threskiornithidae.....ibises & spoonbills
                                                   Family Ciconiiae................storks & jabirus
                                                   Family Cathartidae............new world vultures
                                    Order Phoenicopteriformes
                                                   Family Phoenicopteridae.......greater flamingoes
                                    Order Anseriformes........................ducks, geese, & swans
                                                   Family Anatidae
                                                      Subfamily Cygninae......................swans
                                                      Subfamily Anserinae.....................geese
                                                      Subfamily Dendrocygninae......whistling-ducks
                                                      Subfamily Anatinae......................ducks
                                                            Genus Mareca...................widgeons
                                                            Genus Spatula..................shoveler
                                                            Genus Aix.....................wood duck
                                                            Genus Anas........mallards, teals, etc.
                                                               species platyrhynchos........mallard
                                                      Subfamily Aythyinae..........bay/diving ducks
                                                      Subfamlily Merginae....sea ducks & mergansers
                                                      Subfamily Oxyurinae........stiff-tailed ducks
                                    Order Falconiformes............vultures, hawks, falcons, eagles
                                                   Family Pandionidae.......................ospreys
                                                   Family Accipitriae
                                                      Subfamily Elaninae/Milvinae.............kites
                                                      Subfamily Circinae..........northern harriers
                                                      Subfamily Accipitrinae.......hawks & goshawks
                                                      Subfamily Buteoninae...eagles & buzzard hawks
                                                   Family Falconidae............caracaras & falcons
                                    Order Galliformes.............grouse, quail, turkeys, pheasants
                                                   Family Cracidae................plain chachalacas
                                                   Family Phasianidae
                                                      Subfamily Phasianinae..............partridges
                                                      Subfamily Tetraoninae...........grouses, etc.
                                                      Subfamily Meleagrinae.................turkeys
                                                   Family Odontophoridae..........quail & bobwhites
                                    Order Gruiformes...................................cranes, etc.
                                                   Family Rallidae.......rails, coots, & gallinules
                                                   Family Aramidae.........................limpkins
                                                   Family Gruidae............................cranes
                                    Order Diatrymiformes*
                                    Order Charadriiformes...............................gulls, etc.
                                                   Family Charadriidae.lapwings, plovers, killdeers
                                                   Family Haematopodidae.............oystercatchers
                                                   Family Recurvirostridae.........stilts & avocets
                                                   Family Jacanidae.........................jacanas
                                                   Family Scolopacidae.....sandpipers, snipes, etc.
                                                   Family Laridae
                                                      Subfamily Stercorariinae......skuas & jaegers
                                                      Subfamily Larinae.......................gulls
                                                      Subfamily Sterninae...........terns & noddies 
                                                      Subfamily Rynchopinae................skimmers
                                                   Family Alcidae...........auks, murres, & puffins
                                    Order Columbiformes.......................pigeons, dodos, doves
                                                   Family Columbidae................doves & pigeons
                                    Order Psittaciformes....................lories, parrots, macaws
                                                   Family Psittacidae...........parrots & parakeets
                                    Order Cuculiformes.........................cuckoos, roadrunners
                                                   Family Cuculidae....cuckoos, anis, & roadrunners
                                    Order Strigiformes.........................................owls
                                                   Family Tydonidae.......................barn owls
                                                   Family Strigidae.screech-owls, horned owls, etc.
                                    Order Caprimulgiformes...nighthawks, poorwills, pauraques, etc.
                                                   Family Caprimulgidae............nighthawks, etc.
                                    Order Apodiformes..........................swifts, hummingbirds
                                                   Family Apodidae...........................swifts
                                                   Family Trochilidae..................hummingbirds
                                    Order Coliiformes
                                    Order Trogoniformes
                                    Order Coraciiformes
                                                   Family Alcedinidae...................kingfishers
                                    Order Piciformes.....................toucans, woodpeckers, etc.
                                                   Family Picidae.......woodpeckers, flickers, etc.
                                    Order Passeriformes................perching birds, 5300 species
                                       Suborder Oligomyodi...........suboscines; from South America
                                          Infraorder Acanthisittides..............New Zealand wrens
                                          Infraorder Pittides......................broadbills, etc.
                                          Infraorder Tyrannides
                                             Parvorder Thamnophilida...............typical antbirds
                                             Parvorder Furnariida
                                                Superfamily Formicarioidea.........ground antibirds
                                                Superfamily Furnarioidea............ovenbirds, etc.
                                       Suborder Passeres......................oscines; 4000 species
                                             Parvorder Corvida.................evolved in Australia
                                                Superfamily Menuroidea
                                                Superfamily Meliphagoidea
                                                Superfamily Corvoidea..........crows, jays, magpies
                                                   Family Corvidae
                                                            Genus Perisoreus..............gray jays
                                                            Genus Cyanocitta..............blue jays
                                                            Genus Aphelocoma.............scrub jays
                                                               species californica..........Western
                                                               species coerulescens.........Florida
                                                            Genus Cyanocorax.....brown & green jays
                                                            Genus Pica......................magpies
                                                            Genus Corvus.............crows & ravens
                                                            Genus Gymnorhinus.............piñon jay
                                                            Genus Nucifraga......Clark's nutcracker
                                             Parvorder Passerida
                                                Superfamily Passeroidea........larks, orioles, etc.
                                                   Family Alaudidae...........................larks
                                                   Family Icteridae.....orioles, grackles, cowbirds
                                                   Family Passeridae.............Old World sparrows
                                                            Genus Passer.............house sparrows
                                                   Family Emberizidae......New World sparrows, etc.
                                                   Family Fringillidae......finches, redpolls, etc.
                                                   Family Cardinalidae....cardinals, buntings, etc.
                                                Superfamily Sylvioidea..............wrens, swallows
                                                   Family Hirundinidae...........swallows & martins
                                                   Family Paridae..............chickadees & titmice
                                                   Family Remizidae.........................verdins
                                                   Family Sittidae.......................nuthatches
                                                   Family Certhiidae.................brown creepers
                                                   Family Troglodytidae.......................wrens
                                                Superfamily Muscicapoidea
                                                   Family Bombycillidae....................waxwings
                                                   Family Cincilidae........................dippers
                                                   Family Turdidae.........................thrushes
                                                   Family Sturnidae/Mimidae
                                                         Tribe Mimini..................mockingbirds
                                                         Tribe Sturnini.......................mynas
                                               unclassified
                                                   Family Parulidae..............New World warblers
                                                   Family Thraupidae.......................tanagers
                        Class Mammalia
                           Sublcass Eotheria*
                                    Order Docodonta*
                                    Order Triconodonta*
                           Subclass Prototheria
                                    Order Monotremata............................platypus & echidna
                           Subclass Allotheria*
                                    Order Multituberculata*
                                       Suborder Plagiaulacoidea*
                                       Suborder Taeniolabidoidea*
                                       Suborder Ptilodontoidea*
                           Subclass Theria
                              Infraclass Pantotheria*
                                    Order Eupantotheria*
                                    Order Symmetrodonta*
                              Infraclass Metatheria.........................................pouches
                                 Superorder Marsupialia
                                    Order Marsupicarnivora..................American opossums, etc.
                                    Order Paucituberculata
                                    Order Peramelina.....................................bandicoots
                                    Order Diprotodonta.......................koala, kangaroos, etc.
                                       Suborder Vombatiformes.....................wombats and koala
                                       Suborder Phalangeriformes..Aussi possums, sugar glider, etc.
                                       Suborder Macropodiformes
                                                   Family Balbaridae*...........ancestral kangaroos
                                                   Family Macropodidae...kangaroos, wallabies, etc.
                                                   Family Potoroidae.......bettongs, potaroos, etc.
                                                   Family Hypsiprymnodontidae....musky rat-kangaroo
                              Infraclass Eutheria........................................placentals
                                 Superorder Afrotheria...........................African placentals
                                    Order Tubulidentata...................................aardvarks
                                    Order Proboscidea.....................................elephants
                                       Suborder Moeritherioidea*
                                       Suborder Dinotherioidea*
                                       Suborder Barytherioidea*
                                       Suborder Euelphantoidea
                                                Superfamily Gomphotherioidea*
                                                Superfamily Mastodontoidea................mastodons
                                                Superfamily Elephantoidea......elephants & mammoths
                                    Order Sirenia.................................sea cows/manatees
                                    Order Hyracoidea..........................................Hyrax
                                 Superorder Xenarthra.....................South American placentals
                                    Order Edentata
                                       Suborder Palaeanodonta*
                                       Suborder Cingulata..................armadillos & glyptodonts
                                       Suborder Pilosa............................sloths, anteaters
                                    Order Xenungulata*.....................South American ungulates
                                    Order Pyrotheria*......................South American ungulates
                                    Order Notoungulata*....................South American ungulates
                                       Suborder Notioprogonia*
                                       Suborder Toxodontia*
                                       Suborder Typotheria*
                                       Suborder Hegetotheria*
                                    Order Astrapotheria*...................South American ungulates
                                    Order Litopterna*......................South American ungulates
                                 Superorder Laurasiatheria.....Eurasian & North American placentals
                                    Order Dermoptera
                                    Order Taeniodonta*
                                    Order Tillodontia*
                                    Order Chrioptera...........................................bats
                                       Suborder Microchiroptera
                                       Suborder Megachiroptera
                                    Order Insectivora
                                       Suborder Proteutheria*
                                       Suborder Macroscelidea
                                       Suborder Dilambdodonta.............moles, hedgehogs, & shews
                                       Suborder Zalambdodonta
                                    Order Creodonta..............................ancient carnivores
                                       Suborder Deltatheridia*
                                                   Family Deltatheriidae*
                                                   Family Didymoconidae*
                                       Suborder Hyaenodontia*
                                                   Family Hyaenodontidae*
                                    Order Hyaenodonta*
                                                   Family Hyaenodontidae*
                                                            Genus Hyaenodon*
                                                            Genus Boualitomus*
                                                            Genus Laekitherium*
                                                            Genus Metapterodon*
                                                            Genus Triacodon*
                                                            Genus Parvagula*
                                    Order Oxyaenida*
                                                   Family Oxyaenidae*
                                                            Genus Machaeroides*
                                                   Family Oxyeanidae*
                                    Order Carnivora
                                                   Family Nimravidae*.......from Feliforms 48-55 My
                                                      Subfamily Nimravinae*................Dinictis
                                                      Subfamily Hoplophoninae*
                                       Suborder Feliformia (Fissipedia).........cat-like carnivores
                                          Infraorder
                                                Superfamily Stenoplesictoidea*
                                                   Family Stenoplesictidae*
                                                   Family Percrocutidae*
                                                Superfamily*
                                                   Family Nimravidae*........false sabre-tooth cats
                                                Superfamily
                                                   Family Nandiniidae............African palm civet
                                                Superfamily Feloidea (Aeluroidea)
                                                   Family Prionodontidae...........Asiatic linsangs
                                                   Family Barbourofelidae*
                                                   Family Felidae..............................cats
                                                      Subfamily Machairodontinae*.....Saber-Toothed
                                                         Tribe Metailurini*
                                                            Genus Dinofelis*
                                                            Genus Metailurus*
                                                         Tribe Homotherini*
                                                            Genus Homotherium*
                                                            Genus Machairodus*
                                                            Genus Xenosmilus*
                                                         Tribe Smilodontini*
                                                            Genus Paramachairodus*
                                                            Genus Megantereon*
                                                            Genus Smilodon*
                                                               species gracilis*
                                                               species populator*
                                                               species fatalis*
                                                      Subfamily Pantherinae
                                                         Tribe Panthera Lineage
                                                            Genus Panthera
                                                               species tigris.................tiger
                                                               species leo.....................lion
                                                               species onca..................jaguar
                                                               species pardus...............leopard
                                                               species uncia...........snow leopard
                                                            Genus Neofilis
                                                               species nebulosa.....clouded leopard
                                                               species diardi.Sunda clouded leopard
                                                      Subfamily Felinae
                                                         Tribe Bay cat Lineage
                                                            Genus Pardofelis
                                                            Genus Catopuma
                                                         Tribe Caracal Lineage
                                                            Genus Leptailurus
                                                            Genus Caracal
                                                               species caracal..............caracal
                                                               species aurata....African golden cat
                                                               species serval................serval
                                                         Tribe Ocelot Lineage
                                                            Genus Leopardus
                                                         Tribe Lynx Lineage
                                                            Genus Lynx
                                                         Tribe Puma Lineage
                                                            Genus Puma
                                                            Genus Acinonyx
                                                         Tribe Leopard cat Lineage
                                                            Genus Prionailurus
                                                            Genus Otocolobus
                                                         Tribe Domestic cat Lineage
                                                            Genus Felis
                                                               species catus...........domestic cat
                                                               species chaus.............Jungle cat
                                                               species margarita...........Sand cat
                                                               species nigripes....Black-footed cat
                                                               species silvestris...........Wildcat
                                          Infraorder Viverroidea
                                                Superfamily
                                                   Family Viverridae................civets & allies
                                                Superfamily Herpestoidea
                                                   Family Hyaenidae..............hyaenas & aardwolf
                                                   Family Eupleridae............Malagasy carnivores
                                                   Family Herpestidae............mongooses & allies
                                       Suborder Caniformia......................dog-like carnivores
                                          Infraorder
                                                Superfamily*
                                                   Family Amphicyonidae*..................bear-dogs
                                                Superfamily Canoidea
                                                   Family Canidae.....dogs, wolves, foxes, & allies
                                                      Subfamily Caninae
                                                         Tribe Canini.....................true dogs
                                                            Genus Canis
                                                               species adoxus*
                                                               species lupus..............Gray wolf
                                                                  variety familiaris...domestic dog
                                                                  variety dingo...............Dingo
                                                            Genus Cuon........Dhole, Asian wild dog
                                                            Genus Lycaon...........African wild dog
                                                            Genus Atelocynus........Short-eared dog
                                                            Genus Cerdocyon.........Crab-eating dog
                                                            Genus Dusicyon*..........Falklands wolf
                                                            Genus Lycalopex............pseudo-foxes
                                                            Genus Chrysocyon.............Maned wolf
                                                            Genus Speothos.................Bush dog
                                                         Tribe Vulpini...................true foxes
                                                            Genus Vulpes......................foxes
                                                               species lagopus...........Arctic fox
                                                               species vulpes...............Red fox
                                                               species velax..............Swift fox
                                                               species macrotis.............Kit fox
                                                               species corsac............Corsac fox
                                                               species chama...............Cape fox
                                                               species pallida.............Pale fox
                                                               species bengalensis.......Bengal fox
                                                               species ferrilaa....Tibetan sand fox
                                                               species cana..........Blanford's fox
                                                               species rueppelli......Rüppell's fox
                                                               species zerda.............Fennec fox
                                                            Genus Urocyon
                                                               species cinereoargentieus...Gray fox
                                                               species littoralis........Island fox
                                                               species..................Cozumel fox
                                                         Tribe Caninae
                                                            Genus Otocyon.............Bat-eared fox
                                                            Genus Nyctereutes...........Raccoon dog
                                                      Subfamily Borophaginae*
                                                         Tribe Phlaocyonini*
                                                         Tribe Borophagini*
                                                      Subfamily Hesperocyoninae*
                                          Infraorder Arctoidea
                                                Superfamily Ursoidea
                                                   Family Hemicyonidae*
                                                   Family Ursidae.............................bears
                                                      Subfamily Ailuropodinae
                                                            Genus Ailurarctos*
                                                            Genus Ailuropoda.................pandas
                                                               species melanoleuca......Giant panda
                                                      Subfamily Tremarctinae
                                                            Genus Tremarctos
                                                               species ornatus......Spectacled bear
                                                      Subfamily Ursinae
                                                            Genus Ursavus*
                                                            Genus Indarctos*
                                                            Genus Agriotherium*
                                                            Genus Melursus
                                                               species ursinus...........sloth bear
                                                               species malayanus...........Sun bear
                                                            Genus Ursus
                                                               species thibetanus..Asian black bear
                                                               species americanus........Black bear
                                                               species arctos............Brown bear
                                                                  variety californicus*...CA Golden
                                                                  variety horribilis........Grizzly
                                                                  variety moddendorffi.......Kodiak
                                                               species maritimus.........Polar bear
                                                            Genus Kolponomus*
                                                Superfamily Pinnipedia
                                                   Family Enaliarctidae*
                                                   Family Odobenidae..........................walrus
                                                   Family Otariidae......................eared seals
                                                   Family Phocidae........................true seals
                                                Superfamily Musteloidea
                                                   Family Ailuridae.......................red panda
                                                   Family Mephitidae.........................skunks
                                                   Family Mustelidae...............weasels & allies
                                                   Family Procyonidae.............raccoons & allies
                                    Order Condylarthra*
                                    Order Amblypoda*
                                       Suborder Pantodonta*
                                       Suborder Dinocerata*
                                    Order Pholidota.......................................pangolins
                                    Order Perissodacyla..........................odd toed ungulates
                                       Suborder Hippomorpha
                                                Superfamily Equoidea
                                                   Family Equidae............................horses
                                                Superfamily Brontotherioidea*
                                       Suborder Ancylopoda*
                                       Suborder Ceratomorpha
                                                Superfamily Tapiroidea.......................tapirs
                                                Superfamily Rhinocerotoidea..................rhinos
                                    Order Artiodacyla...........................even toed ungulates
                                       Suborder Paleodonta*
                                                Superfamily Dichobunoidea*
                                                Superfamily Entelodontoidea*
                                       Suborder Suina
                                                Superfamily Suoidea............................pigs
                                                Superfamily Anthracotherioidea*
                                                Superfamily Hippopotamoidea.................hippoes
                                       Suborder Ancodonta*
                                                Superfamily Cainotherioidea*
                                                Superfamily Merycoidondontoidea*
                                       Suborder Tylopoda............................camels & llamas
                                       Suborder Ruminantia................................ruminants
                                          Infraorder Tragulina
                                                Superfamily Traguloidea
                                                   Family Tagulidae......................Mouse Deer
                                          Infraorder Pecora........................higher ruminants
                                                Superfamily Cervoidea
                                                   Family Cervidae.............................Deer
                                                      Subfamily Cervinae.............Old World Deer
                                                         Tribe Cervini....................True Deer
                                                            Genus Cervus........Red Deer, Elk, etc.
                                                            Genus Axis..................Chital Deer
                                                            Genus Dama..................Fallow Deer
                                                            Genus Rucervus...............Swamp Deer
                                                         Tribe Muntiacini..................Muntjacs
                                                            Genus Muntacus.................Muntjacs
                                                            Genus Elaphodus.............Tufted Deer
                                                      Subfamily Capreolinae..........New World Deer
                                                         Tribe Capreolini............New World Deer
                                                            Genus Capreolus................Roe Deer
                                                            Genus Hydropotes.............Water Deer
                                                         Tribe Alceini........................Moose
                                                            Genus Clces.......................Moose
                                                         Tribe Odocoileini................Mule Deer
                                                            Genus Rangifer.................Reindeer
                                                            Genus Odocoileus.....Black/White Tailed
                                                            Genus Blastocerus............Marsh Deer
                                                            Genus Pudu.........................Pudu
                                                            Genus Hippocamelus..........Andean Deer
                                                            Genus Mazama...............Brocket Deer
                                                            Genus Ozotoceros............Pampas Deer
                                                Superfamily Giraffoidea.....................Giraffs
                                                   Family Antilocapridae
                                                            Genus Antilocapra............Pronghorns
                                                   Family Giraffidae........................Giraffs
                                                Superfamily Bovoidea.........................Cattle
                                                   Family Moschidae
                                                            Genus Moschus.................Musk Deer
                                                   Family Bovidae
                                                      Subfamily Bovinae
                                                         Tribe Boselaphini
                                                         Tribe Bovini
                                                            Genus Bubalus.......water buffalo, etc.
                                                               species arnee.....Wild Water Buffalo
                                                               species bubalis........Water Buffalo
                                                               species depressicornis..Lowland Anoa
                                                               species mindorensis..........Tamaraw
                                                               species quarlesi.......Mountain Anoa
                                                            Genus Bos....................cows, etc.
                                                               species primigenius..........Aurochs
                                                               species javanicus............Banteng
                                                               species gaurus..................Gaur
                                                               species frontalis..............Gayal
                                                               species grunniens................Yak
                                                               species mutus...............Wild Yak
                                                               species sauveli..............Kouprey
                                                               species taurus.......domestic cattle
                                                                  variety taurus.....Taurine cattle
                                                                  variety indicus..Zebu, Indian cow
                                                            Genus Pseudoryx...................Saola
                                                            Genus Syncerus..........African Buffalo
                                                            Genus Bison
                                                               species bison.......American Buffalo
                                                               species bonasus.......European Bison
                                                            Genus Pelorivis*..........Giant Buffalo
                                                            Genus Tragelaphus.........antelope-like
                                                            Genus Taurotragus................Elands
                                  Clade Artiodacyla.............................even toed ungulates
                                    Order Cetartiodactyla....................................whales
                                      Clade Cetancodontamorpha
                                       Suborder Whippomorpha
                                          Infraorder Cetacia.................................whales
                                             Parvorder Archaeoceti*
                                             Parvorder Odontoceti..........dolphins, toothed whales
                                             Parvorder Mysticeti...................whalebone whales
                                    Order Desmostylia
                                    Order Embrithopoda*
                                 Superorder Euarchontoglires...............rhodents, primates, etc.
                                    Order Rodentia
                                       Suborder Protorogomorpha*
                                       Suborder Sciuromorpha..............................squirrels
                                       Suborder Caviomorpha
                                       Suborder Myomorpha...............................mice & rats
                                       Suborder Castorimorpha...............................beavers
                                       Suborder Theridomyomorpha*
                                       Suborder Hystricomorpha...........................procupines
                                       Suborder Thryonomyomorpha
                                       Suborder Ctenodactylomorpha
                                    Order Lagomorpha........................................rabbits
                                    Order Scandentia
                                                Superfamily Tupaeoidea.............or with Primates
                                                   Family Tupaiidae.....................tree shrews
                                                      Subfamily Tupaiinae
                                                            Genus Tupaia
                                                            Genus Dendrogale
                                                            Genus Urogale
                                                      Subfamily Ptilocercinae
                                                            Genus Ptilocerus
                                    Order Primates..............prosimians, monkeys, apes, & humans
                                       Suborder Plesiadapiformes*
                                                Superfamily Paramomyoidea*
                                                   Family Paromomyidae*
                                                   Family Picrodontidae*
                                                   Family Microsyopidae*
                                                Superfamily Plesiadapoidea
                                                   Family Plesiadapidae*
                                                   Family Saxonellidae*
                                                   Family Carpolestidae*
                                       Suborder Strepsirrhines
                                          Infraorder Prosimii
                                             Parvorder Adapiformes*
                                                   Family Adapidae*
                                             Parvorder Lemuriformes
                                                Superfamily Lemuroidea
                                                   Family Lemuridae..........................lemurs
                                                      Subfamily Lemurinae
                                                            Genus Lemur
                                                            Genus Hapalemur
                                                            Genus Lepilemur
                                                   Family Megalapidae*
                                                            Genus Megalapis*
                                                Superfamily Indrioidea
                                                   Family Indriidae
                                                            Genus Mesopropithecus*
                                                            Genus Indri
                                                            Genus Lichanotus
                                                            Genus Propithecus
                                                   Family Daubentoniidae
                                                            Genus Daubentonia
                                                   Family Archaeolemuridae*
                                                            Genus Archaeolemur*
                                                            Genus Hadropithecus*
                                                   Family Palaeopropithecidae*
                                                            Genus Palaeopropithecus*
                                                            Genus Archaeoindris*
                                                Superfamily Lorisoidea
                                                   Family Lorisidae.........................lorises
                                                            Genus Loris
                                                            Genus Nycticebus
                                                            Genus Arctocebus
                                                            Genus Perodicticus
                                                   Family Cheirogaleinae
                                                            Genus Cheirogaleus
                                                            Genus Microcebus
                                                            Genus Phaner
                                                   Family Galagidae
                                                      Subfamily Galaginae
                                                            Genus Galago
                                                            Genus Euoticus
                                       Suborder Haplorhines
                                          Infraorder Tarsiiformes
                                                Superfamily Tarsioidea
                                                   Family Omomyidae*
                                                            Genus Absarokius*
                                                            Genus Altanius*
                                                            Genus Anaptomorphus*
                                                            Genus Anemorphysis*
                                                            Genus Chlororhysis*
                                                            Genus Chumashius*
                                                            Genus Donrussellia*
                                                            Genus Dyseolemur*
                                                            Genus Ekgmowechashala*
                                                            Genus Hemiacodon*
                                                            Genus Hoanghonius*
                                                            Genus Kohatius*
                                                            Genus Loveina*
                                                            Genus Macrotarsius*
                                                            Genus Mckennamorphus*
                                                            Genus Microchoerus*
                                                            Genus Nannopithe *
                                                            Genus Necrolemur*
                                                            Genus Omomys*
                                                            Genus Ourayia*
                                                            Genus Pseudoloris*
                                                            Genus Rooneyia*
                                                            Genus Shoshonius*
                                                            Genus Stockia*
                                                            Genus Teilhardina*
                                                            Genus Tetonius*
                                                            Genus Trogolemus*
                                                            Genus Uintanius*
                                                            Genus Utahia*
                                                            Genus Washakus*
                                                   Family Tarsiidae........................tarsiers
                                                            Genus Tarsius
                                          Infraorder Anthropoidea...........monkeys, apes, & humans
                                             Parvorder Platyrrhini................new world monkeys
                                                Superfamily Ceboidea
                                                   Family Atelidae*
                                                            Genus Cebupitheciae*
                                                            Genus Homunculus*
                                                            Genus Stirtonia*
                                                            Genus Tremacebus*
                                                            Genus Xenothrix*
                                                   Family Callithriciae...................marmosets
                                                      Subfamily Callithricinae
                                                            Genus Callithri 
                                                            Genus Leontocebus...............tamarin
                                                            Genus Cebulella
                                                            Genus Mico
                                                            Genus Marikina
                                                            Genus Tamarin
                                                            Genus Oedipomidas
                                                   Family Cebidae
                                                    unclassified
                                                            Genus Branisella*
                                                            Genus Dolichocebus*
                                                            Genus Neosaimiri*
                                                      Subfamily Callimiconinae
                                                            Genus Callimico
                                                      Subfamily Aotinae
                                                            Genus Aotes
                                                            Genus Callicebus
                                                      Subfamily Pthecinae
                                                            Genus Pithecia
                                                            Genus Chriopotes
                                                            Genus Cacajao
                                                      Subfamily Alouattinae
                                                            Genus Alouatta...................howler
                                                      Subfamily Cebinae
                                                            Genus Cebus....................capuchin
                                                            Genus Saimiri
                                                      Subfamily Atelinae
                                                            Genus Ateles..............spider monkey
                                                            Genus Brachyteles
                                                            Genus Lagothri 
                                             Parvorder Catarrhini................old world primates
                                                Superfamily Parapithecoidea*
                                                   Family Parapithecidae*
                                                            Genus Apidium*
                                                            Genus Parapithecus*
                                                Superfamily Cercopithecoidea......old world monkeys
                                                   Family Oreopithecidae*
                                                            Genus Oreopithecus*
                                                   Family Cercopithecidae
                                                    unclassified
                                                            Genus Dinopithecus*
                                                            Genus Dolichopithecus*
                                                            Genus Gorgopithecus*
                                                            Genus Libypithecus*
                                                            Genus Mesopithecus*
                                                            Genus Paradolichopithecus*
                                                            Genus Procynocephalus*
                                                            Genus Prohylobates*
                                                            Genus Victoriapithecus*
                                                      Subfamily Cercopithecinae
                                                            Genus Cercopithecoides*
                                                            Genus Macaca....................macaque
                                                            Genus Cynopithecus
                                                            Genus Cercocebus
                                                            Genus Papio......................baboon
                                                            Genus Theropithecus
                                                            Genus Cercopithecus
                                                            Genus Erythrocebus
                                                            Genus Mandrillus...............mandrill
                                                      Subfamily Colobinae
                                                            Genus Parcolobus*
                                                            Genus Presbytis..................langur
                                                            Genus Pygathri 
                                                            Genus Rhinopithcus
                                                            Genus Simias
                                                            Genus Nasalis
                                                            Genus Colobus
                                                Superfamily Hominoidea................apes & humans
                                                   Family Pliopithecidae*
                                                            Genus Dendropithecus*
                                                            Genus Limnopithecus*
                                                            Genus Pliopithecus*
                                                            Genus Propliopithecus*
                                                   Family Hylobatidae
                                                      Subfamily Hyobatinae
                                                            Genus Hylobates..................gibbon
                                                            Genus Symphlangus...............siamang
                                                   Family Pongidae
                                                    unclassified
                                                            Genus Dryopithecus*
                                                            Genus Gigantopithecus*
                                                            Genus Proconsul*
                                                            Genus Sivapithecus*
                                                      Subfamily Ponginae
                                                            Genus Pongo...................orangutan
                                                            Genus Pan....................chimpanzee
                                                            Genus Gorilla
                                                   Family Hominidae..........................humans
                                                      Subfamily Australopithecinae
                                                            Genus Australopithecus
                                                               species anamensis.......4.5-3 My ago
                                                               species afarensis...........4-2.5 My
                                                               species africanus...........2.5-2 My
                                                               species garhi...............2.5-2 My
                                                               species boisei............2.5-1.5 My
                                                               species robustus............1.5-1 My
                                                      Subfamily Anthropinae
                                                         Tribe Hominini
                                                            Genus Homo
                                                               species habilis.............2 My ago
                                                               species rudolfensis...........1.2 My
                                                               species erectus.........1,500-250 ky
                                                               species ergaster........1,000-800 ky
                                                               species antecessor.........500,000 y
                                                               species sapiens............300,000 y
                                                                  variety neanderthalensis...150 ky
                                                                  variety archaic.........300-30 ky
                                                                  variety sapiens..........32,000 y

Let me remind the reader that I cannot say that any of this page is the result of an extensive search of the literature, let alone the most recent literature. I notice what comes my way. The purpose here is to give an impression of the variety of life, in line with the philosophical purpose of The Proceedings of the Friesian School, with some issues that are of interest to me. Suggestions are welcome.

Mammae Humanae

The Maastricht and Onion Creek Mosasaurs

Genus Architeuthis, the Giant Squid

The Living Coelecanth, Latimeria

Human Evolution

Philosophy of Science

Home Page

Copyright (c) 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 1

Unfortunately, Friend is a politically correct jounalist who insists on marring his book with nasty environmentalist remarks, like the need to "save the human race from its recklessness and horribly inefficient ways of using energy" [p.28], as though our determination to live our lives with available technology, however inefficient this will appear in the future, is "recklessness" just because we are doing it. Friend, of course, is free to offer his own technology, which hopefully will not be less efficient, as "alternative fuels" currently are. Friend's moral indignation over other people, or reality, not measuring up to his expectations is characteristic of the political left and much of the environmental movement. On the other hand, Friend seems to be daring and politically incorrect in his appreciation of genetic engineering and biotechnology -- he deserves some credit for this.

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All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 2;
Mammae Humanae,
τὼ ἀνθρωπίνω μαστώ

This note has moved. Do not follow the link if you will be offended by discussion or images of human breasts, or if such things are not age appropriate for you. If you are viewing this page within the frame, the note will appear within the frame.

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All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 3;
Squid

Architeuthis, the Giant Squid, was until recently ranked as the largest invertebrate. It has been one of the greatest mysteries in nature, since for decades no mature animal had ever been filmed or photographed alive. It was sometimes said that one had never been seen alive, but there were several reports of sightings. Whether they were to be believed was the question, though there is no particular reason why such a report, in general, should not have been believed. Most of the reports were of sightings at night, and it now well known that many deep sea creatures come up from the depths in the dark.


Architeuthis was not like Big Foot. Remains of adult animals were found washed ashore from Britain to New Zealand, and other individuals were found in the stomachs of Sperm Whales. Intact adults have been found up to 60 feet long -- although now this is said to be an exaggeration (tentacles have been unnaturally stretched before measurement). The actual bodies (the "mantle") are less than third of that:  It is the arms and tentacles that account for the rest of the length. The two tentacles are the longest organs, used for actually snaching prey and carrying it to the mouth. Architeuthis has the largest eyes of any animal. This is consistent with its deep water habits. The squids may frequent depths of 2000 feet or more, where light from above no longer exists, but many animals generate their own light, for various reasons. Sightings of live Architeuthis at the surface have only been at night. The large eyes may also be why living individuals were not been seen at depth. Human deep sea vehicles are usually lit up like Christmas trees, with searchlights and television cameras scanning the area. This is going to be conspicuous, if not positively painful, to Architeuthis, which, if healthy, will be able to avoid being anywhere near would-be observers. Indeed, a large portion of the known species of any kind of squid have not been observed alive. They live in all oceans from top to bottom. Squids are basically pelagic, i.e. live in open water, unlike octopuses, which are benthic, i.e. tend to live on the ocean bottom -- although there are some pelagic octopi and benthic squid. Neither kind of animal has air sacs or voids in its body (although the closely related cuttlefish do). This enables them to easily adapt to any depth or pressure in the ocean. Sperm Whales can dive to great depths to eat Giant Squids, but as their lungs collapse, there are limits. The squids do fight back, since such whales often have scars that look like the work of Architeuthis. There are naturalists who have been specifically looking for Giant Squids, and hopefully they will continue to think of strategies or camouflage to overcome how or why it is that the animals tend to avoid observation.

In September 2005, news broke that Japanese scientists had finally observed a live Giant Squid at depth. They had done this back in September 2004, and I still have not seen the reason why the the news was so delayed. They took more than 500 pictures of one 25 foot long individual they found at 2,950 feet (900 meters) beneath the North Pacific Ocean. Unfortunately, they were able to do this by hooking the animal, and in its struggle to get away, it lost one of its tentacles, which was recovered by the Japanese. This sighting still doesn't seem to involve movies of direct observation from submersibles.

I have been waiting for the shows on the Discovery, National Geographic, or the (Discovery) Science Channels about all this, and now I have seen a good hour long show on the Science Channel about the achievement, called "Giant Squid: Caught on Camera." The Japanese scientists found the squid by following the sperm whales who hunt them off Japan. The whales are certainly as impressive as the Giant Squid, diving down more than a mile and staying down for a couple of hours. The undigested beaks of multiple squid are often found in the stomachs of the whales, and their hide is scarred from squid suckers. Tracking devices were placed on the whales to see how deep they were diving to hunt the squid, and that is where the pictures were caught.

There is now another issue involved here. Since 2003, complete specimens have been described of the Colossal Squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, 1925). The Colossal Squid is shorter but heavier than Architeuthis and has been receiving considerable, if not the lion's share, of media attention the last few years, since this now counts as the largest invertebrate. The largest Colossal Squid, caught in 2007, weighed in at 1091 lbs. and was 33 ft. long. While the range of the Giant Squid is through all the worlds oceans, the Colossal Squid appears to be confined to the circumantarctic Southern Ocean. How recent is the recognition of the Colossal Squid, which was originally described (in 1925) only from fragments, I can tell from my previous sourcebook on Celphalopods:  Cephalopods, A World Guide, by Mark Norman [ConchBooks, Hackenheim, Germany, 2000]. This handsome volume, which I bought in 2002, contains no mention whatsoever of the Colossal Squid or Mesonychoteuthis. The introduction to the Architeuthidae simply says, "Giant Squids are the largest of all the cephalopods and the largest individual intervertebrate in the world" [p.150]. This now needs to be rewritten.

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All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 4;
The Coelacanth

Until 1938, specimens of lobe-finned fishes of the Order Crossopterygii, the ancestors of amphibians, were only known from fossils. They appeared to have died out in the Cretaceous.

Then a fisherman from East London, South Africa, brought in a fish he did not recognize. He called Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer, curator of the museum in East London, to have a look at it. She could not identify the fish and called her friend, ichthyologist James Leonard Brierley Smith. After some delay, in which the fish needed to be sent to a taxidermist, Smith examined the specimen and recognized that it was a Coelacanth. The genus was named Latimeria after Marjorie. Since the fish had been damaged by the taxidermy, some questions remained until more examples were caught in 1952. Living fish were filmed under water only in 1988.

Up to six feet long and bright blue in life, but evidently not good eating (they had long been known to the locals), these dramatic fish, with their dramatic identification, gave a whole new meaning to the term "living fossil." Smith said that he could not have been more surprised if he had seen a dinosaur walking down the street.

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All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 5;
Ratites

The Ratites are a group of birds that include the largest birds. Ostriches can stand nine feet tall, but Moas and Elephant Birds were taller. The Ratites are now all flightness, except for the Tinamous. Ideas about the Ratites have recently been badly shaken by DNA studies. We also have some uncertainty about the generality of the group, with classifications grouping them as either a Superorder or an Infraclass.

The diagram at right reflects the list given above. This has been altered from the classication previously on this page, where the Superorder Palaeognathae simply contained seven Orders of birds, the Struthioniformes (Ostriches), Rheiformes (Rheas), Dinornithiformes (Moas), Tinamiformes (Tinamous), Casuariiformes (Cassowaries and Emus), Aepyrornithiformes (Elephant Birds), and Apterygiformes (Kiwis). The equality of the Orders embodied uncertainty about the genetic relations of the groups, something not unusual with birds, whose fossils have been rare.

Previously, since all Ratites are confinded to the Southern Hemisphere, it was concluded that they originated on the great southern continent of Gondwanaland, during the Creataceous. Gondwanaland then broke up, isolating populations in South America, Africa, and Australia, and on islands like New Zeland and Madagascar.

Since the South American Timanou can fly, and all of the other birds cannot, with the same reduction of the breast bone, which no longer anchors flight muscles, the inference was that a common ancestor lost flight, with the Tinamou preserving the ancestral power. So the Tinamou wasn't even a true Ratite.

The diagram at left displays the judgment about all this as of 1974. The birds are grouped by location, with the exception of the Tinamous, which share South America with Rheas. Thus, the flying branch of ancestry was only preserved in South America, while the Rheas are the South American branch of the lineage in Gondwanaland that lost flight, and is otherwise found on all the daughter continents. The Elephant Birds of Madagascar are not shown here, but we are free to infer a close relationship with Ostriches, which have been found both in Africa and, with fossils, in India, either of which could have shared species with Madagascar.

This logical and almost self-evident arrangement was completely scrambled when DNA studies were done on the living species and on the available DNA of the fossils of extinct ones. The lineage that certainly had to be distinct from all the others, of the flying Tinamous, is now buried deep in the phylogeny, closely related to the Moas in New Zealand, which is almost literally a world away from South America. Just as bad, or worse, is that the extinct Elephant Birds of Madagascar are the most closely related to the tiny and peculiar Kiwis of New Zealand, a full ocean, and more, if not exectly a world, away from each other.

These results are challenging in several ways. How would a common ancestor have descendants in just New Zealand and South America, and another have descendants in just New Zealand and Madagascar? This adds to the strangeness of Madagascar, which is the home of all surviving Prosimians, and whose human languages are related to the Polynesian Mâori language of New Zealand. The timeline seems to prevent these sharings from dating to when the land masses were adjacent in the Cretaceous. We end up with the picture of Kiwis somehow flying to New Zealand from Madagascar. And it would be a very long way for Tinamous to fly from New Zealand to South America, without leaving descendants behind. Or anywhere else along the way.

Even worse, if it is considered impossible that Tinamous could have returned to flight from a flightless ancestor, this means that the ancestor of nearly every lineage of Ratites could fly and that each lineage thus independently became flightless. This is very hard to credit, especially if the reduction in the breast bone is apparently identical in all of them. Evolution doesn't work that way.

So we have multiple mysteries with the Ratites -- problems that until recently didn't even exist. But it means great fun to figure this out. Genuine scientists love it when conventional wisdom is suddenly overthrown, with no obvious path forward. If only there were more scientists like that in climatology.

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